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# Sumer

# Sumer

## Overview
Sumer was the earliest known civilization in southern Mesopotamia (modern-day southern Iraq), emerging ~4500 BCE and flourishing during the 3rd millennium BCE. It is credited with foundational innovations including writing (cuneiform), urbanization, and codified law.

## Key Facts
- Region: Southern Mesopotamia, between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers
- Period: ~4500–1900 BCE
- Major cities: Ur, Uruk, Eridu, Lagash, Nippur, Kish
- Language: Sumerian (language isolate)
- Writing system: Cuneiform, developed ~3400 BCE
- Government: City-states ruled by *lugal* (kings) and *ensi* (governors)

## Major Periods
- Ubaid period (~5500–4000 BCE): Proto-urban settlements
- Uruk period (~4000–3100 BCE): First true cities, invention of writing
- Early Dynastic period (~2900–2350 BCE): Competing city-states
- Third Dynasty of Ur (~2112–2004 BCE): Final Sumerian renaissance under Ur-Nammu

## Achievements
- Invented cuneiform writing ~3400 BCE [^1]
- Built ziggurats as temple complexes
- Developed the sexagesimal (base-60) number system
- Created the earliest known legal code (Code of Ur-Nammu, ~2100 BCE)
- Established irrigation agriculture at scale
- Produced the *Epic of Gilgamesh*, among the earliest literary works [^2]

## Decline
Sumer was absorbed by the Akkadian Empire under Sargon of Akkad ~2334 BCE, briefly revived under the Third Dynasty of Ur, and finally eclipsed by the rise of Babylon ~1900 BCE.

---
[^1]: Schmandt-Besserat, D. *Before Writing* (1992)
[^2]: George, A. *The Epic of Gilgamesh* (Penguin Classics, 2003)
---

## Review Queue

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- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Region: Southern Mesopotamia, between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Schmandt-Besserat (1992) [^1]; George (2003) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Period: ~4500–1900 BCE" - when was this true?
> 1900 BCE event. Attested by Schmandt-Besserat (1992) [^1]; George (2003) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Major cities: Ur, Uruk, Eridu, Lagash, Nippur, Kish" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Schmandt-Besserat (1992) [^1]; George (2003) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 13: "Language: Sumerian (language isolate)" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Schmandt-Besserat (1992) [^1]; George (2003) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 14: "Writing system: Cuneiform, developed ~3400 BCE" - when was this true?
> 3400 BCE event. Attested by Schmandt-Besserat (1992) [^1]; George (2003) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 15: "Government: City-states ruled by *lugal* (kings) and *ensi* (governors)" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Schmandt-Besserat (1992) [^1]; George (2003) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Ubaid period (~5500–4000 BCE): Proto-urban settlements" - when was this true?
> 4000 BCE event. Attested by Schmandt-Besserat (1992) [^1]; George (2003) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Uruk period (~4000–3100 BCE): First true cities, invention of writing" - when was this true?
> 3100 BCE event. Attested by Schmandt-Besserat (1992) [^1]; George (2003) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 20: "Early Dynastic period (~2900–2350 BCE): Competing city-states" - when was this true?
> 2350 BCE event. Attested by Schmandt-Besserat (1992) [^1]; George (2003) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 21: "Third Dynasty of Ur (~2112–2004 BCE): Final Sumerian renaissance under Ur-N..." - when was this true?
> 2004 BCE event. Attested by Schmandt-Besserat (1992) [^1]; George (2003) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 24: "Invented cuneiform writing ~3400 BCE [^1]" - when was this true?
> 3400 BCE event. Attested by Schmandt-Besserat (1992) [^1]; George (2003) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Built ziggurats as temple complexes" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Schmandt-Besserat (1992) [^1]; George (2003) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 26: "Developed the sexagesimal (base-60) number system" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Schmandt-Besserat (1992) [^1]; George (2003) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 27: "Created the earliest known legal code (Code of Ur-Nammu, ~2100 BCE)" - when was this true?
> 2100 BCE event. Attested by Schmandt-Besserat (1992) [^1]; George (2003) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 28: "Established irrigation agriculture at scale" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Schmandt-Besserat (1992) [^1]; George (2003) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 29: "Produced the *Epic of Gilgamesh*, among the earliest literary works [^2]" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Schmandt-Besserat (1992) [^1]; George (2003) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Region: Southern Mesopotamia, between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers" - what is the source?
> Schmandt-Besserat (1992) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Period: ~4500–1900 BCE" - what is the source?
> Schmandt-Besserat (1992) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Major cities: Ur, Uruk, Eridu, Lagash, Nippur, Kish" - what is the source?
> Schmandt-Besserat (1992) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 13: "Language: Sumerian (language isolate)" - what is the source?
> Schmandt-Besserat (1992) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 14: "Writing system: Cuneiform, developed ~3400 BCE" - what is the source?
> Schmandt-Besserat (1992) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 15: "Government: City-states ruled by *lugal* (kings) and *ensi* (governors)" - what is the source?
> Schmandt-Besserat (1992) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Ubaid period (~5500–4000 BCE): Proto-urban settlements" - what is the source?
> Schmandt-Besserat (1992) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 19: "Uruk period (~4000–3100 BCE): First true cities, invention of writing" - what is the source?
> Schmandt-Besserat (1992) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 20: "Early Dynastic period (~2900–2350 BCE): Competing city-states" - what is the source?
> Schmandt-Besserat (1992) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 21: "Third Dynasty of Ur (~2112–2004 BCE): Final Sumerian renaissance under Ur-N..." - what is the source?
> Schmandt-Besserat (1992) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 25: "Built ziggurats as temple complexes" - what is the source?
> Schmandt-Besserat (1992) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 26: "Developed the sexagesimal (base-60) number system" - what is the source?
> Schmandt-Besserat (1992) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 27: "Created the earliest known legal code (Code of Ur-Nammu, ~2100 BCE)" - what is the source?
> Schmandt-Besserat (1992) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 28: "Established irrigation agriculture at scale" - what is the source?
> Schmandt-Besserat (1992) [^1]
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 24: "Invented cuneiform writing ~3400 BCE [^1]" - Schmandt-Besserat source from 1992 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Scholarship remains current. Cuneiform development dating is well-established.
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 29: "Produced the *Epic of Gilgamesh*, among the earliest literary works [^2]" - George source from 2003 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Scholarship remains current. Epic of Gilgamesh dating and significance confirmed.