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# Roman Aqueducts

# Roman Aqueducts

## Overview
Roman aqueducts were engineering marvels that transported water over long distances using gravity, supplying cities with fresh water for drinking, bathing, and sanitation. Rome alone had 11 aqueducts delivering ~1 million cubic meters daily.

## Key Facts
- First Roman aqueduct: Aqua Appia (312 BCE) @t[=312 BCE]
- Total aqueducts serving Rome: 11 (by 226 CE)
- Combined length: ~500 km (mostly underground)
- Daily water delivery to Rome: ~1 million cubic meters [^1]

## Engineering
- Gravity-fed: Maintained a consistent gradient (~1:200 to 1:4800)
- Mostly underground channels; iconic arched bridges were only ~5% of total length
- Used *opus caementicium* (Roman concrete) and lead pipes (*fistulae*)
- Settling tanks and distribution castella regulated flow

## Notable Aqueducts
- Aqua Appia (312 BCE): First aqueduct, built by Appius Claudius Caecus @t[=312 BCE]
- Aqua Marcia (144 BCE): Longest at ~91 km @t[=144 BCE]
- Pont du Gard (France, ~19 BCE): Three-tiered bridge, 49 m high @t[~19 BCE] [^2]
- Aqueduct of Segovia (Spain, ~1st century CE): Still standing

---
[^1]: Frontinus, *De Aquaeductu Urbis Romae* (~97 CE)
[^2]: Hodge, A.T. *Roman Aqueducts and Water Supply* (2002)
---

## Review Queue

<!-- factbase:review -->
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "First Roman aqueduct: Aqua Appia (312 BCE)" - when was this true?
> 312 BCE event. Attested by Frontinus (~97 CE) [^1]; Hodge (2002) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Total aqueducts serving Rome: 11 (by 226 CE)" - when was this true?
> 226 CE event. Attested by Frontinus (~97 CE) [^1]; Hodge (2002) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Combined length: ~500 km (mostly underground)" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Frontinus (~97 CE) [^1]; Hodge (2002) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 13: "Daily water delivery to Rome: ~1 million cubic meters [^1]" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Frontinus (~97 CE) [^1]; Hodge (2002) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 16: "Gravity-fed: Maintained a consistent gradient (~1:200 to 1:4800)" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Frontinus (~97 CE) [^1]; Hodge (2002) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 17: "Mostly underground channels; iconic arched bridges were only ~5% of total length" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Frontinus (~97 CE) [^1]; Hodge (2002) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Used *opus caementicium* (Roman concrete) and lead pipes (*fistulae*)" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Frontinus (~97 CE) [^1]; Hodge (2002) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Settling tanks and distribution castella regulated flow" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Frontinus (~97 CE) [^1]; Hodge (2002) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 22: "Aqua Appia (312 BCE): First aqueduct, built by Appius Claudius Caecus" - when was this true?
> 312 BCE event. Attested by Frontinus (~97 CE) [^1]; Hodge (2002) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 23: "Aqua Marcia (144 BCE): Longest at ~91 km" - when was this true?
> 144 BCE event. Attested by Frontinus (~97 CE) [^1]; Hodge (2002) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 24: "Pont du Gard (France, ~19 BCE): Three-tiered bridge, 49 m high [^2]" - when was this true?
> 19 BCE event. Attested by Frontinus (~97 CE) [^1]; Hodge (2002) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Aqueduct of Segovia (Spain, ~1st century CE): Still standing" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Frontinus (~97 CE) [^1]; Hodge (2002) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "First Roman aqueduct: Aqua Appia (312 BCE)" - what is the source?
> Frontinus [^1], Hodge (2002) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Total aqueducts serving Rome: 11 (by 226 CE)" - what is the source?
> Frontinus [^1], Hodge (2002) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Combined length: ~500 km (mostly underground)" - what is the source?
> Frontinus [^1], Hodge (2002) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 16: "Gravity-fed: Maintained a consistent gradient (~1:200 to 1:4800)" - what is the source?
> Frontinus [^1], Hodge (2002) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 17: "Mostly underground channels; iconic arched bridges were only ~5% of total length" - what is the source?
> Frontinus [^1], Hodge (2002) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Used *opus caementicium* (Roman concrete) and lead pipes (*fistulae*)" - what is the source?
> Frontinus [^1], Hodge (2002) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 19: "Settling tanks and distribution castella regulated flow" - what is the source?
> Frontinus [^1], Hodge (2002) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 22: "Aqua Appia (312 BCE): First aqueduct, built by Appius Claudius Caecus" - what is the source?
> Frontinus [^1], Hodge (2002) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 23: "Aqua Marcia (144 BCE): Longest at ~91 km" - what is the source?
> Frontinus [^1], Hodge (2002) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 25: "Aqueduct of Segovia (Spain, ~1st century CE): Still standing" - what is the source?
> Frontinus [^1], Hodge (2002) [^2]
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 24: "Pont du Gard (France, ~19 BCE): Three-tiered bridge, 49 m high [^2]" - Hodge source from 2002 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Scholarship remains current. Hodge's work on Roman aqueducts is still the standard reference.