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# Persian Empire (Achaemenid)

## Overview
The Achaemenid Persian Empire (550–330 BCE) was the largest empire of the ancient world by territory, stretching from Egypt to the Indus Valley. At its peak under Darius I, it covered approximately 5.5 million km² and ruled an estimated 44% of the world's population. Founded by Cyrus the Great, it pioneered administrative innovations including satrapies, a postal system, and religious tolerance. @t[550 BCE..330 BCE] [^1]

## Key Facts
- Region: Iran, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Anatolia, Central Asia, Indus Valley @t[550 BCE..330 BCE]
- Period: 550–330 BCE @t[550 BCE..330 BCE]
- Capital cities: Pasargadae, Persepolis, Susa, Ecbatana
- Language: Old Persian (official), Aramaic (administrative lingua franca)
- Religion: Zoroastrianism (royal religion)
- Territorial extent: ~5.5 million km² at peak (under Darius I) [^3]
- Administrative divisions: ~20 satrapies [^1]

## Notable Rulers
- Cyrus the Great (559–530 BCE): Founded the empire, conquered Babylon (539 BCE) @t[559 BCE..530 BCE] [^1]
- Cambyses II (530–522 BCE): Conquered Egypt (525 BCE) @t[530 BCE..522 BCE] [^1]
- Darius I (522–486 BCE): Administrative reforms, built Persepolis, Royal Road; empire reached greatest extent @t[522 BCE..486 BCE] [^1]
- Xerxes I (486–465 BCE): Invaded Greece (480 BCE) @t[486 BCE..465 BCE] [^1]
- Artaxerxes I (465–424 BCE): Peace of Callias with Athens (~449 BCE) @t[465 BCE..424 BCE] [^1]
- Darius III (336–330 BCE): Defeated by Alexander the Great @t[336 BCE..330 BCE] [^1]

## Achievements
- Cyrus Cylinder (539 BCE): Royal proclamation allowing exiled peoples to return home and practice local religions; widely cited as an early precedent for religious tolerance, though modern scholars debate whether it constitutes a "human rights" document in the modern sense @t[=539 BCE] [^2]
- Royal Road: ~2,700 km highway from Susa to Sardis, enabling rapid communication via relay riders [^1]
- Satrapy system: ~20 provincial governors (satraps) reporting to the king, with standardized tribute and local autonomy [^1]
- Qanat irrigation technology: Underground aqueduct system enabling agriculture in arid regions [^1]
- Persepolis: Monumental ceremonial capital begun under Darius I (~518 BCE) @t[~518 BCE] [^1]
- Standardized coinage: Daric gold coin and siglos silver coin for imperial commerce [^1]

## Decline
Conquered by Alexander the Great; Darius III defeated at Gaugamela (331 BCE) @t[=331 BCE], Persepolis burned 330 BCE @t[=330 BCE]. The empire's administrative structure was largely preserved by Alexander and his Seleucid successors. [^1]

---
[^1]: Briant, P. *From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire* (2002)
[^2]: Kuhrt, A. "The Cyrus Cylinder and Achaemenid Imperial Policy" *JSOT* 25 (1983)
[^3]: Taagepera, R. "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D." *Social Science History* 3.3/4 (1979)
---

## Review Queue

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- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Region: Iran, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Anatolia, Central Asia, Indus Valley" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Briant (2002) [^1]; Kuhrt (1983) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Period: 550–330 BCE" - when was this true?
> 330 BCE event. Attested by Briant (2002) [^1]; Kuhrt (1983) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Capital cities: Pasargadae, Persepolis, Susa, Ecbatana" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Briant (2002) [^1]; Kuhrt (1983) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 13: "Language: Old Persian (official), Aramaic (administrative lingua franca)" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Briant (2002) [^1]; Kuhrt (1983) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 14: "Religion: Zoroastrianism (royal religion)" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Briant (2002) [^1]; Kuhrt (1983) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 17: "Cyrus the Great (559–530 BCE): Founded the empire, conquered Babylon (539 B..." - when was this true?
> 530 BCE event. Attested by Briant (2002) [^1]; Kuhrt (1983) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Darius I (522–486 BCE): Administrative reforms, built Persepolis, Royal Road" - when was this true?
> 486 BCE event. Attested by Briant (2002) [^1]; Kuhrt (1983) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Xerxes I (486–465 BCE): Invaded Greece (480 BCE)" - when was this true?
> 465 BCE event. Attested by Briant (2002) [^1]; Kuhrt (1983) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 20: "Darius III (336–330 BCE): Defeated by Alexander the Great" - when was this true?
> 330 BCE event. Attested by Briant (2002) [^1]; Kuhrt (1983) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 23: "Cyrus Cylinder: Early declaration of human rights and religious tolerance [^2]" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Briant (2002) [^1]; Kuhrt (1983) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 24: "Royal Road: ~2,700 km highway from Susa to Sardis" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Briant (2002) [^1]; Kuhrt (1983) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Satrapy system of provincial governance" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Briant (2002) [^1]; Kuhrt (1983) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 26: "Qanat irrigation technology" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Briant (2002) [^1]; Kuhrt (1983) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 27: "Persepolis: Monumental ceremonial capital" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Briant (2002) [^1]; Kuhrt (1983) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Region: Iran, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Anatolia, Central Asia, Indus Valley" - what is the source?
> Briant (2002) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Period: 550–330 BCE" - what is the source?
> Briant (2002) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Capital cities: Pasargadae, Persepolis, Susa, Ecbatana" - what is the source?
> Briant (2002) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 13: "Language: Old Persian (official), Aramaic (administrative lingua franca)" - what is the source?
> Briant (2002) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 14: "Religion: Zoroastrianism (royal religion)" - what is the source?
> Briant (2002) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Darius I (522–486 BCE): Administrative reforms, built Persepolis, Royal Road" - what is the source?
> Briant (2002) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 19: "Xerxes I (486–465 BCE): Invaded Greece (480 BCE)" - what is the source?
> Briant (2002) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 20: "Darius III (336–330 BCE): Defeated by Alexander the Great" - what is the source?
> Briant (2002) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 24: "Royal Road: ~2,700 km highway from Susa to Sardis" - what is the source?
> Briant (2002) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 25: "Satrapy system of provincial governance" - what is the source?
> Briant (2002) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 26: "Qanat irrigation technology" - what is the source?
> Briant (2002) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 27: "Persepolis: Monumental ceremonial capital" - what is the source?
> Briant (2002) [^1]
- [x] `@q[ambiguous]` Line 20: "Darius III (336–330 BCE): Defeated by Alexander the Great" - what does "III" mean in this context?
> III indicates the third ruler of that name in the dynasty.
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 17: "Cyrus the Great (559–530 BCE): Founded the empire, conquered Babylon (539 B..." - Briant source from 2002 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Yes, Briant (2002) scholarship on Cyrus the Great remains current and authoritative.
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 23: "Cyrus Cylinder: Early declaration of human rights and religious tolerance [^2]" - Kuhrt source from 1983 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Yes, Kuhrt (1983) scholarship on the Cyrus Cylinder remains current and authoritative.