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# Pompeii

## Overview
Pompeii was a Roman city near modern Naples, Italy, buried by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE. @t[=0079] The volcanic ash preserved the city in extraordinary detail, providing an unparalleled snapshot of Roman daily life. Along with Herculaneum and Stabiae, it was buried under 4–6 metres of volcanic ash and pumice. [^1]

## History

Pompeii was founded by the Oscans, probably in the 7th–8th century BCE, on a strategic crossroads between Cumae, Nola, and Stabiae. @t[~700 BCE..] The site's fertile volcanic soil and access to the sea made it a prosperous trade hub. [^3]

- **Oscan/Samnite period** (~5th–3rd century BCE): The Samnites incorporated Pompeii into their confederation, rebuilding temples and fortifications; much of the pre-Roman civic fabric dates to this era. @t[~450 BCE..80 BCE]
- **Roman colony** (80 BCE): After the Social War, the Roman general Lucius Cornelius Sulla besieged and captured Pompeii, settling ~2,000 veterans and establishing it as *Colonia Cornelia Veneria Pompeianorum*. @t[=80 BCE] [^3]
- **Destruction** (79 CE): The eruption of Vesuvius buried the city. @t[=0079]

## Key Facts
- Location: Near modern Naples, Campania, Italy [^1]
- Destroyed: 79 CE (eruption of Vesuvius) @t[=0079] [^2]
- Population at destruction: ~11,000–20,000 [^1]
- Rediscovered: 1748 (systematic excavation began) [^1]
- UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1997

## Eruption Date Controversy

The traditional date of 24 August 79 CE derives from Pliny the Younger's letters to Tacitus (*Epistulae* VI.16 and VI.20), the only surviving eyewitness account. [^2] However, archaeological evidence increasingly supports an autumn date:

- A charcoal inscription discovered in 2018 reads "the 16th day before the calends of November," corresponding to 17 October 79 CE — after which the eruption must have occurred. [^4]
- Victims were found wearing heavy woollen clothing inconsistent with August heat.
- Autumn fruits (pomegranates, dried figs) and heating braziers were found in situ.

The October date is now favoured by many scholars, though the debate continues. [^4]

## Major Features
- **Forum**: Central public square with temples, basilica, and markets [^1]
- **Amphitheatre**: Oldest surviving Roman amphitheatre (~70 BCE) @t[~70 BCE] [^1]
- **Villa of the Mysteries**: Frescoes depicting Dionysiac initiation rites [^1]
- **Thermopolia**: Fast-food counters (over 80 found) [^1]
- **Plaster casts of victims**: Created by Giuseppe Fiorelli's technique (1863) [^1]

## Archaeological Significance
- Preserves Roman urban planning, architecture, art, and daily life [^1]
- Graffiti provides insight into language, politics, and social life [^1]
- Ongoing excavations continue to reveal new areas [^1]

## Recent Discoveries

The *Grande Progetto Pompei* (Great Pompeii Project), launched in 2012 with EU funding, revived large-scale excavation of the unexcavated third of the city. Key finds include:

- **Regio V excavations** (2018–present): The House of the Garden and House of Orion yielded vivid frescoes, mosaics, skeletons, coins, and amulets. [^5]
- **Slave room at Villa of Civita Giuliana** (2021): A remarkably preserved ~16 m² dormitory containing three wooden beds, a chamber pot, amphorae, and horse bridles — a rare direct window into enslaved life. [^6]
- **Prison bakery** (2023): A bakery-prison where enslaved workers and donkeys were confined to grind grain, with indentations in the floor guiding the animals' circular path. [^7]
- **Post-eruption reoccupation** (2025): New evidence suggests parts of Pompeii were briefly reoccupied after the 79 CE eruption. [^8]

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[^1]: Beard, M. *Pompeii: The Life of a Roman Town* (2008); Wallace-Hadrill, A. *Houses and Society in Pompeii and Herculaneum* (1994)
[^2]: Pliny the Younger, *Epistulae* VI.16 and VI.20 (c. 107 CE), letters to Tacitus describing the eruption
[^3]: Cooley, A. & Cooley, M.G.L. *Pompeii and Herculaneum: A Sourcebook* (2014)
[^4]: Osanna, M. et al., "New evidence for the date of the eruption of Vesuvius," *E-Journal of the Excavations of Pompeii* (2018); discussed in Jpost.com (2024)
[^5]: National Geographic, "Pompeii's most recent finds reveal new clues to city's destruction" (2020)
[^6]: Pompeii Archaeological Park press release, "Slave room discovered at Villa of Civita Giuliana" (November 2021)
[^7]: The Art Newspaper, "Pompeii prison bakery opens to the public" (January 2024)
[^8]: Pompeii Archaeological Park / ScienceAlert, "Archaeologists find evidence of life in post-eruption Pompeii" (August 2025)