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# Definitions: Ancient History Terms

## Chronological Terms
- **BCE**: Before Common Era — equivalent to BC, used in secular academic contexts
- **CE**: Common Era — equivalent to AD, used in secular academic contexts
- **Chalcolithic / Copper Age**: Transitional period between the Neolithic and Bronze Age (~4500–3300 BCE in the Near East), characterized by early copper use before bronze technology developed
- **Bronze Age**: Period characterized by bronze metallurgy (~3300–1200 BCE in the Near East)
- **Late Bronze Age Collapse**: The widespread societal collapse (~1200 BCE) that destroyed or severely disrupted civilizations across the Eastern Mediterranean, including the Mycenaean Greeks, Hittites, and Ugarit; associated with the Sea Peoples invasions, drought, and systems failure
- **Iron Age**: Period following the Bronze Age, characterized by iron technology (~1200–~500 BCE) @t[~500 BCE]
- **Archaic Period**: Early phase of Greek civilization (~800–480 BCE) @t[800 BCE..480 BCE]
- **Classical Period**: Height of Greek civilization (~480–323 BCE) @t[480 BCE..323 BCE]
- **Hellenistic Period**: Post-Alexander era of Greek cultural diffusion (323–30 BCE) @t[323 BCE..30 BCE]
- **Late Antiquity**: Transitional period (~284–700 CE) between classical antiquity and the early Middle Ages, marked by the transformation of the Roman Empire, the rise of Christianity, and the migrations of Germanic peoples

## Political Terms
- **Polis**: Greek city-state, the fundamental political unit of ancient Greece
- **Acropolis**: The elevated citadel of a Greek city, typically housing temples and defensive structures; most famously the Acropolis of Athens
- **Agora**: The central public space of a Greek city-state, serving as marketplace, civic center, and place of assembly; the political and commercial heart of the polis
- **Forum**: The Roman equivalent of the agora; the central public square of a Roman city, used for commerce, politics, law, and public life. The Forum Romanum was the civic center of Rome
- **Consul**: The highest elected magistrate of the Roman Republic, serving a one-year term; two consuls held office simultaneously as a check on individual power. The office persisted in name into the Empire
- **Senate**: The governing council of Rome, composed of senior magistrates and former magistrates; wielded significant legislative and advisory power throughout the Republic and retained prestige into the Empire
- **Patrician**: Member of Rome's hereditary aristocratic class, holding exclusive rights to certain offices and priesthoods in the early Republic; gradually lost exclusive privileges through the Conflict of the Orders (~494–287 BCE)
- **Plebeian**: Member of Rome's common citizen class; over time gained political rights and access to magistracies through the Conflict of the Orders
- **Pharaoh**: The title of the ruler of ancient Egypt, combining political and religious authority as both king and divine intermediary between gods and humans
- **Satrapy**: Provincial administrative unit of the Persian Empire, governed by a satrap
- **Principate**: First phase of the Roman Empire (27 BCE–284 CE), maintaining republican facades @t[=27 BCE]
- **Dominate**: Later phase of the Roman Empire (284–476 CE), openly autocratic
- **Foederati**: Barbarian groups settled within the Roman Empire under treaty obligations

## Military Terms
- **Hoplite**: A heavily armed Greek infantry soldier, equipped with a round shield (aspis), spear, and bronze armor; the backbone of Greek armies from the Archaic through Hellenistic periods
- **Phalanx**: A dense infantry formation of hoplites fighting in close ranks with overlapping shields; the dominant Greek and Macedonian battle tactic, perfected by Philip II and Alexander the Great
- **Legion**: The primary tactical unit of the Roman army, typically comprising ~4,000–6,000 soldiers organized into cohorts and centuries; evolved significantly from the early Republic through the late Empire
- **Trireme**: The dominant warship of the classical Greek world, propelled by three banks of oars; decisive at the Battle of Salamis (480 BCE) @t[=480 BCE]

## Cultural Terms
- **Cuneiform**: Wedge-shaped writing system of Mesopotamia
- **Hieroglyphics**: Pictorial writing system of ancient Egypt
- **Linear A**: Undeciphered Minoan script
- **Linear B**: Deciphered Mycenaean Greek script
- **Koine Greek**: Common dialect of Greek used across the Hellenistic world
- **Syncretism**: The merging or blending of different religious, cultural, or philosophical traditions; widespread in the Hellenistic and Roman periods as Greek, Egyptian, Persian, and other traditions interacted
- **Amphora** (pl. amphorae): A two-handled ceramic storage vessel used throughout the ancient Mediterranean for transporting wine, olive oil, grain, and other commodities; a key artifact in trade route archaeology
- **Papyrus**: A writing material made from the papyrus plant (*Cyperus papyrus*), used extensively in ancient Egypt and across the Mediterranean world; the primary medium for Egyptian administrative and literary texts

## Naming Conventions
- **Roman numerals in ruler names** (I, II, III, IV, etc.): Ordinal suffixes used by modern historians to distinguish rulers sharing the same name (e.g., Tiglath-Pileser III = the third king named Tiglath-Pileser; Ramesses II = the second pharaoh named Ramesses). Not used by the rulers themselves in antiquity.

## Dating Conventions
- **Floruit (fl.)**: Latin for "flourished"; used when a person's birth and death dates are unknown but their period of activity can be established. Common in ancient history where biographical data is sparse (e.g., "Thales of Miletus, fl. ~585 BCE")
- **Terminus post quem (TPQ)**: Latin for "limit after which"; the earliest possible date for an event or artifact, established by the latest datable item found in the same archaeological context
- **Terminus ante quem (TAQ)**: Latin for "limit before which"; the latest possible date for an event or artifact, established by the earliest datable context that post-dates it
- **Regnal year**: A year counted from the accession of a ruler, used in ancient dating systems (e.g., "Year 3 of Ramesses II"). Ancient texts often use regnal years rather than absolute dates, requiring conversion to BCE/CE

## Archaeological Terms
- **Tell/Tel**: Artificial mound formed by accumulated remains of ancient settlements
- **Stele/Stela**: Upright stone slab used for commemorative or legal inscriptions
- **Ziggurat**: Stepped temple platform in Mesopotamian architecture
- **Necropolis**: Large ancient cemetery ("city of the dead")
- **In situ**: Latin for "in place"; describes an artifact or feature found in its original, undisturbed position, providing maximum contextual information for interpretation
- **Midden**: An ancient refuse deposit — accumulated food remains, broken pottery, ash, and other debris — that provides valuable evidence of diet, economy, and daily life at a site
- **Radiocarbon dating**: An absolute dating technique measuring the decay of carbon-14 in organic material; effective for organic remains up to ~50,000 years old, widely used to date ancient sites and artifacts. Also called carbon-14 dating or C-14 dating
- **Archaeological layer / stratum (pl. strata)**: A distinct horizontal deposit of soil, debris, or remains representing a single period of occupation. Sites with multiple occupation phases (e.g., Troy) are numbered sequentially using Roman numerals (I = earliest). The study of these layers is called stratigraphy.
- **Destruction layer**: An archaeological stratum showing evidence of violent or sudden destruction — burned debris, weapons, unburied remains — used to correlate a site's history with known historical events.