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# Ancient Greece

## Overview
Ancient Greece (~800–146 BCE) comprised independent city-states (*poleis*) that produced foundational contributions to Western philosophy, democracy, science, art, and literature. @t[800 BCE..146 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Region: Greek peninsula, Aegean islands, western Anatolia, colonies across the Mediterranean
- Period: ~800 BCE (Archaic) – 146 BCE (Roman conquest) @t[~800 BCE..146 BCE]
- Major city-states: Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Thebes
- Language: Ancient Greek (Indo-European)
- Writing: Greek alphabet, adapted from Phoenician ~800 BCE @t[~800 BCE]
- Population (Classical peak): estimated 1–3 million across all poleis; Athens alone ~250,000 at its height [^2]

## Major Periods
- Greek Dark Ages (~1100–800 BCE): Collapse of Mycenaean civilization, fragmented tribal societies @t[~1100 BCE..800 BCE] [^1]
- Archaic (~800–480 BCE): Colonization, rise of the polis, early philosophy @t[800 BCE..480 BCE]
- Classical (480–323 BCE): Golden Age of Athens, Persian Wars, Peloponnesian War, Alexander @t[480 BCE..323 BCE]
- Hellenistic (323–146 BCE): Post-Alexander kingdoms, cultural diffusion @t[323 BCE..146 BCE]

## Government & Society
The *polis* (city-state) was the fundamental political and social unit. Poleis experimented with monarchy, oligarchy, tyranny, and democracy. [^1]

- Athenian democracy established ~508 BCE under Cleisthenes @t[~508 BCE] [^1]
- Sparta maintained a dual kingship with an oligarchic council (*gerousia*) throughout the Classical period @t[480 BCE..323 BCE]
- Slavery was widespread; in Classical Athens, slaves may have constituted roughly one-third of the population [^2]

## Military
Greek city-states developed the *hoplite* — a citizen-soldier equipped with spear (*dory*), short sword (*xiphos*), and large round shield (*aspis*) — fighting in the *phalanx* formation from ~700 BCE. @t[~700 BCE] [^3]

- Persian Wars (490–479 BCE): Greek coalition repelled two Persian invasions; key battles at Marathon (490 BCE), Thermopylae (480 BCE), and Salamis (480 BCE) @t[490 BCE..479 BCE] [^4]
- Peloponnesian War (431–404 BCE): Athens vs. Sparta; ended in Athenian defeat @t[431 BCE..404 BCE] [^4]
- Battle of Chaeronea (338 BCE): Macedonian victory ended Greek city-state independence @t[=338 BCE] [^1]

## Economy
Agriculture dominated, employing up to 80% of the population. From the 6th century BCE, maritime trade became central to economic output. @t[600 BCE..146 BCE] [^5]

- Silver mines at Laurion (Attica) funded the Athenian navy and treasury from ~483 BCE @t[~483 BCE] [^4]
- Athens controlled key Aegean trade routes; grain imports from the Black Sea region were essential to feeding the city

## Achievements
- Philosophy: Socrates, Plato, Aristotle — foundations of Western philosophical tradition [^1]
- Drama: Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides (tragedy); Aristophanes (comedy) [^1]
- History: Herodotus (*Histories*), Thucydides (*History of the Peloponnesian War*) [^4]
- Olympic Games, first held 776 BCE @t[=776 BCE] [^1]
- Parthenon completed ~432 BCE @t[~432 BCE] [^1]
- Mathematics and science: Pythagoras, Euclid, Archimedes, Hippocrates

## Decline
Greece fell under Macedonian hegemony after the Battle of Chaeronea (338 BCE), then became a Roman province after the destruction of Corinth in 146 BCE. @t[=338 BCE] @t[=146 BCE]

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[^1]: Ober, J. *The Rise and Fall of Classical Greece* (Princeton University Press, 2015)
[^2]: Hansen, M.H. *The Shotgun Method: The Demography of the Ancient Greek City-State Culture* (University of Missouri Press, 2006)
[^3]: Hanson, V.D. *The Western Way of War: Infantry Battle in Classical Greece* (University of California Press, 2000)
[^4]: Herodotus. *Histories*, trans. A.D. Godley (Loeb Classical Library, 1920)
[^5]: Finley, M.I. *The Ancient Economy* (University of California Press, 1973)