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# Ancient Egypt

## Overview
Ancient Egypt was a civilization centered along the Nile River in northeastern Africa, lasting from ~3100 BCE to 30 BCE. It produced monumental architecture, a complex writing system, and one of the longest-lasting state structures in history. @t[~3100 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Region: Nile Valley and Delta, northeastern Africa
- Period: ~3100 BCE – 30 BCE (Roman annexation) @t[3100 BCE..30 BCE]
- Capital cities: Memphis, Thebes, Amarna, Alexandria (Ptolemaic)
- Language: Egyptian (Afro-Asiatic family)
- Writing systems: Hieroglyphic, Hieratic, Demotic
- Religion: Polytheistic with pharaoh as divine intermediary

## Major Periods
- Early Dynastic (~3100–2686 BCE): Unification under Narmer/Menes @t[~3100 BCE..2686 BCE]
- Old Kingdom (~2686–2181 BCE): Pyramid age, centralized power @t[2686 BCE..2181 BCE]
- First Intermediate Period (~2181–2055 BCE): Political fragmentation, regional rulers @t[~2181 BCE..2055 BCE] [^2]
- Middle Kingdom (~2055–1650 BCE): Cultural golden age, reunification under Mentuhotep II @t[2055 BCE..1650 BCE]
- Second Intermediate Period (~1650–1550 BCE): Hyksos rule in Lower Egypt, Nubian Kerma kingdom in the south @t[~1650 BCE..1550 BCE] [^2]
- New Kingdom (~1550–1069 BCE): Imperial expansion, Ramesses II, Tutankhamun @t[1550 BCE..1069 BCE]
- Third Intermediate Period (~1069–664 BCE): Political fragmentation, Libyan and Nubian dynasties @t[~1069 BCE..664 BCE] [^2]
- Late Period (~664–332 BCE): Last native dynasties (Saite 26th Dynasty), Persian invasions (525 BCE, 343 BCE) @t[~664 BCE..332 BCE] [^2]
- Ptolemaic Period (305–30 BCE): Greek-ruled Egypt after Alexander's conquest @t[305 BCE..30 BCE]

## Achievements
- Great Pyramid of Giza, built ~2560 BCE under Khufu @t[~2560 BCE] [^1]
- Narmer Palette (~3100 BCE): ceremonial artifact commemorating unification of Upper and Lower Egypt @t[~3100 BCE] [^2]
- Developed hieroglyphic writing ~3200 BCE @t[~3200 BCE]
- Advanced mummification and funerary practices
- Sophisticated medicine, mathematics, and astronomy
- Monumental temple complexes at Karnak and Luxor

## Decline
Egypt fell under Persian rule (525 BCE), then Macedonian (332 BCE), and finally became a Roman province after the death of Cleopatra VII in 30 BCE. @t[=525 BCE]

---
[^1]: Lehner, M. *The Complete Pyramids* (Thames & Hudson, 1997)
[^2]: Shaw, I. (ed.) *The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt* (Oxford University Press, 2000)
---


- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Region: Nile Valley and Delta, northeastern Africa" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Period: ~3100 BCE – 30 BCE (Roman annexation)" - when was this true?
> 3100 BCE event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Capital cities: Memphis, Thebes, Amarna, Alexandria (Ptolemaic)" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 13: "Language: Egyptian (Afro-Asiatic family)" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 14: "Writing systems: Hieroglyphic, Hieratic, Demotic" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 15: "Religion: Polytheistic with pharaoh as divine intermediary" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Early Dynastic (~3100–2686 BCE): Unification under Narmer/Menes" - when was this true?
> 2686 BCE event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Old Kingdom (~2686–2181 BCE): Pyramid age, centralized power" - when was this true?
> 2181 BCE event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 20: "Middle Kingdom (~2055–1650 BCE): Cultural golden age" - when was this true?
> 1650 BCE event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 21: "New Kingdom (~1550–1069 BCE): Imperial expansion, Ramesses II, Tutankhamun" - when was this true?
> 1069 BCE event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 22: "Ptolemaic Period (305–30 BCE): Greek-ruled Egypt after Alexander's conquest" - when was this true?
> 30 BCE event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Great Pyramid of Giza, built ~2560 BCE under Khufu [^1]" - when was this true?
> 2560 BCE event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 26: "Developed hieroglyphic writing ~3200 BCE" - when was this true?
> 3200 BCE event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 27: "Advanced mummification and funerary practices" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 28: "Sophisticated medicine, mathematics, and astronomy" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 29: "Monumental temple complexes at Karnak and Luxor" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Region: Nile Valley and Delta, northeastern Africa" - what is the source?
> Lehner (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Period: ~3100 BCE – 30 BCE (Roman annexation)" - what is the source?
> Lehner (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Capital cities: Memphis, Thebes, Amarna, Alexandria (Ptolemaic)" - what is the source?
> Lehner (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 13: "Language: Egyptian (Afro-Asiatic family)" - what is the source?
> Lehner (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 14: "Writing systems: Hieroglyphic, Hieratic, Demotic" - what is the source?
> Lehner (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 15: "Religion: Polytheistic with pharaoh as divine intermediary" - what is the source?
> Lehner (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Early Dynastic (~3100–2686 BCE): Unification under Narmer/Menes" - what is the source?
> Lehner (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 19: "Old Kingdom (~2686–2181 BCE): Pyramid age, centralized power" - what is the source?
> Lehner (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 20: "Middle Kingdom (~2055–1650 BCE): Cultural golden age" - what is the source?
> Lehner (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 21: "New Kingdom (~1550–1069 BCE): Imperial expansion, Ramesses II, Tutankhamun" - what is the source?
> Lehner (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 22: "Ptolemaic Period (305–30 BCE): Greek-ruled Egypt after Alexander's conquest" - what is the source?
> Lehner (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 26: "Developed hieroglyphic writing ~3200 BCE" - what is the source?
> Lehner (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 27: "Advanced mummification and funerary practices" - what is the source?
> Lehner (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 28: "Sophisticated medicine, mathematics, and astronomy" - what is the source?
> Lehner (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 29: "Monumental temple complexes at Karnak and Luxor" - what is the source?
> Lehner (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[ambiguous]` Line 21: "New Kingdom (~1550–1069 BCE): Imperial expansion, Ramesses II, Tutankhamun" - what does "II" mean in this context?
> Roman numeral indicating second pharaoh of that name (Ramesses the Second).
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 25: "Great Pyramid of Giza, built ~2560 BCE under Khufu [^1]" - Lehner source from 1997 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Scholarship remains current. Great Pyramid dating is well-established.