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# Battle of Actium

## Overview
The Battle of Actium (31 BCE) was the decisive naval engagement in which Octavian (later Augustus) defeated the combined forces of Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII, ending the Roman Republic's civil wars and paving the way for the Roman Empire. @t[=31 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Date: 2 September 31 BCE @t[=31 BCE]
- Location: Ionian Sea, near Actium (western Greece)
- Belligerents: Octavian vs. Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII
- Commanders: Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa (for Octavian), Antony and Cleopatra
- Result: Decisive victory for Octavian [^1]

## Background
The battle was the culmination of over a decade of rivalry between Octavian and Antony following the assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 BCE and the fracture of the Second Triumvirate (43–33 BCE). Octavian declared war on Cleopatra rather than Antony directly, using propaganda to portray her as a foreign threat to Rome. Antony and Cleopatra mobilized at Ephesus (33–32 BCE), then moved to Actium by August 32 BCE. Cleopatra contributed 20,000 talents to the war chest. [^3]

## The Battle
- Octavian's forces: ~400 ships (light Liburnian vessels) + 80,000 infantry, 12,000 cavalry; Antony's forces: ~480 ships (heavy quinqueremes) + ~60,000–63,000 infantry [^3]
- Agrippa seized Methone and Leucas in early 31 BCE, cutting off Antony's Egyptian supply lines before the main engagement
- Antony's forces were weakened by desertion and disease during a prolonged blockade
- Agrippa's Liburnians used the *harpax* — an iron-encased grappling harpoon fired by catapult — to immobilize Antony's larger, slower warships
- Cleopatra's squadron broke through and fled with the war chests; Antony followed with ~40 ships
- Remaining fleet surrendered the next morning; Antony's legions defected to Octavian

## Aftermath
- Antony stabbed himself on 1 August 30 BCE and died in Cleopatra's arms in Alexandria @t[=30 BCE]
- Cleopatra killed herself on 30 August 30 BCE rather than be paraded in Octavian's triumph @t[=30 BCE] [^1]
- Octavian ordered the execution of Caesarion (son of Julius Caesar and Cleopatra) [^3]
- Cleopatra's three children by Antony were taken to Rome and later raised by Octavia
- Egypt became a Roman province (30 BCE) @t[=30 BCE] [^3]
- Octavian became sole ruler; Senate granted him the title Augustus (27 BCE) @t[=27 BCE] [^2]

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[^1]: Plutarch, *Life of Antony*
[^2]: Lange, C.H. *The Battle of Actium 31 BC* (Cambridge, 2022)
[^3]: Cassius Dio, *Roman History*, Books 50–51 (~229 CE)
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## Review Queue

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- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Date: 2 September 31 BCE" - when was this true?
> BCE event. Attested by Plutarch, *Life of Antony* (~75 CE) [^1]; modern scholarly confirmation in Lange (2022) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Location: Ionian Sea, near Actium (western Greece)" - when was this true?
> BCE-era fact. Attested by Plutarch, *Life of Antony* (~75 CE) [^1]; confirmed in Lange (2022) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Belligerents: Octavian vs. Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII" - when was this true?
> BCE-era fact. Attested by Plutarch, *Life of Antony* (~75 CE) [^1].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 13: "Commanders: Agrippa (for Octavian), Antony and Cleopatra" - when was this true?
> BCE-era fact. Attested by Plutarch, *Life of Antony* (~75 CE) [^1]. Agrippa's role confirmed in Cassius Dio, *Roman History* 50 (~229 CE).
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 14: "Result: Decisive victory for Octavian [^1]" - when was this true?
> BCE-era fact. Attested by Plutarch, *Life of Antony* (~75 CE) [^1]; modern analysis in Lange (2022) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 17: "Octavian's fleet: ~400 ships; Antony's fleet: ~230 warships + 60 Egyptian ships" - when was this true?
> BCE-era fact. Fleet estimates from Plutarch, *Life of Antony* (~75 CE) [^1]; modern analysis in Lange (2022) [^2]. Ancient estimates vary by source.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Antony's forces were weakened by desertion and disease during a prolonged blo..." - when was this true?
> BCE event (31 BCE campaign). Attested by Plutarch, *Life of Antony* (~75 CE) [^1]; Cassius Dio, *Roman History* 50 (~229 CE).
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Cleopatra's squadron broke through and fled; Antony followed" - when was this true?
> BCE event (2 September 31 BCE). Attested by Plutarch, *Life of Antony* 66 (~75 CE) [^1].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 20: "Remaining fleet surrendered; Antony's legions defected to Octavian" - when was this true?
> BCE event (31 BCE). Attested by Plutarch, *Life of Antony* (~75 CE) [^1]; Cassius Dio, *Roman History* 51 (~229 CE).
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 23: "Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide in Alexandria (30 BCE)" - when was this true?
> BCE event (30 BCE). Attested by Plutarch, *Life of Antony* 76-86 (~75 CE) [^1].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 24: "Egypt became a Roman province" - when was this true?
> BCE event (30 BCE). Attested by Cassius Dio, *Roman History* 51.17 (~229 CE); confirmed in Lange (2022) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Octavian became sole ruler; Senate granted him the title Augustus (27 BCE) [^2]" - when was this true?
> BCE event (27 BCE). Attested by multiple ancient sources including Cassius Dio (~229 CE); modern confirmation in Lange (2022) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Date: 2 September 31 BCE" - what is the source?
> Source: Plutarch, Life of Antony; Cassius Dio, Roman History 50-51. The date is well-established in classical sources. Already cited via [^1] (Plutarch) and [^2] (Lange 2022).
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Location: Ionian Sea, near Actium (western Greece)" - what is the source?
> Source: Plutarch, Life of Antony; Cassius Dio, Roman History 50. Already covered by document footnotes [^1] and [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Belligerents: Octavian vs. Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII" - what is the source?
> Source: Plutarch, Life of Antony [^1]. Well-established historical fact.
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 13: "Commanders: Agrippa (for Octavian), Antony and Cleopatra" - what is the source?
> Source: Plutarch, Life of Antony [^1]; Cassius Dio, Roman History 50.
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 17: "Octavian's fleet: ~400 ships; Antony's fleet: ~230 warships + 60 Egyptian ships" - what is the source?
> Source: Plutarch, Life of Antony [^1]; fleet estimates vary by source. Lange (2022) [^2] provides modern analysis.
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Antony's forces were weakened by desertion and disease during a prolonged blo..." - what is the source?
> Source: Plutarch, Life of Antony [^1]; Cassius Dio, Roman History 50.
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 19: "Cleopatra's squadron broke through and fled; Antony followed" - what is the source?
> Source: Plutarch, Life of Antony 66 [^1]; Cassius Dio, Roman History 50.33.
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 20: "Remaining fleet surrendered; Antony's legions defected to Octavian" - what is the source?
> Source: Plutarch, Life of Antony [^1]; Cassius Dio, Roman History 51.
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 23: "Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide in Alexandria (30 BCE)" - what is the source?
> Source: Plutarch, Life of Antony 76-86 [^1]. Antony died by sword, Cleopatra by asp bite (traditional account). Well-established in classical sources.
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 24: "Egypt became a Roman province" - what is the source?
> Source: Cassius Dio, Roman History 51.17. Egypt became a Roman province in 30 BCE. Add [^1] reference.
- [x] `@q[ambiguous]` Line 12: "Belligerents: Octavian vs. Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII" - what does "VII" mean in this context?
> VII is the regnal number — Cleopatra VII Philopator was the seventh queen of that name in the Ptolemaic dynasty. She is the famous Cleopatra (69-30 BCE). The numeral distinguishes her from earlier Cleopatras. No change needed — standard historical convention.
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 25: "Octavian became sole ruler; Senate granted him the title Augustus (27 BCE) [^2]" - Lange source from 2022 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> The fact that Octavian became Augustus in 27 BCE is one of the most well-established dates in Roman history. Lange's 2022 source is a recent scholarly work and remains current. No update needed.