Add BCE temporal tags to all documents; add temporal-dating steering doc
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# Cuneiform
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## Overview
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Cuneiform is the earliest known writing system, developed in Sumer ~3400 BCE. Written by pressing a reed stylus into wet clay tablets, it was used for over 3,000 years across multiple languages and civilizations.
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Cuneiform is the earliest known writing system, developed in Sumer ~3400 BCE. Written by pressing a reed stylus into wet clay tablets, it was used for over 3,000 years across multiple languages and civilizations. @t[~3400 BCE]
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## Key Facts
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- Origin: Sumer, southern Mesopotamia, ~3400 BCE
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- Origin: Sumer, southern Mesopotamia, ~3400 BCE @t[~3400 BCE]
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- Medium: Clay tablets impressed with a wedge-shaped reed stylus
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- Name: From Latin *cuneus* ("wedge")
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- Languages written: Sumerian, Akkadian, Hittite, Elamite, Urartian, Old Persian
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- Deciphered by: Henry Rawlinson, Edward Hincks, and others (~1840s–1850s) via the Behistun Inscription [^1]
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## Development
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- Began as pictographic/logographic system for accounting (~3400 BCE)
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- Evolved into syllabic writing by ~2600 BCE
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- Began as pictographic/logographic system for accounting (~3400 BCE) @t[~3400 BCE]
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- Evolved into syllabic writing by ~2600 BCE @t[~2600 BCE]
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- ~600–1,000 signs in use at various periods
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- Last known cuneiform tablet: 75 CE (astronomical text from Babylon) [^2]
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Egyptian hieroglyphics were the formal writing system of ancient Egypt, used for ~3,500 years on monuments, temples, and tombs. Deciphered by Jean-François Champollion in 1822 using the Rosetta Stone.
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## Key Facts
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- Origin: ~3200 BCE (earliest examples from Abydos)
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- Period of use: ~3200 BCE – ~400 CE
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- Origin: ~3200 BCE (earliest examples from Abydos) @t[~3200 BCE]
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- Period of use: ~3200 BCE – ~400 CE @t[3200 BCE..400]
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- Number of signs: ~700 in classical usage (expanded to ~5,000 in Ptolemaic period)
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- Deciphered by: Jean-François Champollion (1822) using the Rosetta Stone [^1]
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## System
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- Combination of logographic, syllabic, and alphabetic elements
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- Written left-to-right, right-to-left, or top-to-bottom (direction indicated by which way figures face)
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- Hieratic: Cursive form for everyday use (~2600 BCE onward)
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- Demotic: Later cursive form (~650 BCE onward)
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- Hieratic: Cursive form for everyday use (~2600 BCE onward) @t[~2600 BCE]
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- Demotic: Later cursive form (~650 BCE onward) @t[~650 BCE]
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## Key Artifacts
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- Rosetta Stone (196 BCE): Trilingual decree (hieroglyphic, Demotic, Greek) that enabled decipherment [^2]
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- Narmer Palette (~3100 BCE): Among the earliest hieroglyphic inscriptions
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- Rosetta Stone (196 BCE): Trilingual decree (hieroglyphic, Demotic, Greek) that enabled decipherment @t[=196 BCE] [^2]
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- Narmer Palette (~3100 BCE): Among the earliest hieroglyphic inscriptions @t[~3100 BCE]
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- Book of the Dead: Funerary texts with hieroglyphic illustrations
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---
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# Phoenician Alphabet
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## Overview
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The Phoenician alphabet (~1050 BCE) was the first widely-used phonetic alphabet, consisting of 22 consonant letters. It is the ancestor of virtually all modern alphabets including Greek, Latin, Arabic, and Hebrew.
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The Phoenician alphabet (~1050 BCE) was the first widely-used phonetic alphabet, consisting of 22 consonant letters. It is the ancestor of virtually all modern alphabets including Greek, Latin, Arabic, and Hebrew. @t[~1050 BCE]
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## Key Facts
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- Origin: Phoenicia (modern Lebanon), ~1050 BCE
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- Origin: Phoenicia (modern Lebanon), ~1050 BCE @t[~1050 BCE]
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- Type: Abjad (consonantal alphabet, no vowels)
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- Number of letters: 22
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- Direction: Right to left
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- Derived from: Proto-Sinaitic/Proto-Canaanite script (~1800 BCE) [^1]
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- Derived from: Proto-Sinaitic/Proto-Canaanite script (~1800 BCE) @t[~1800 BCE] [^1]
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## Descendants
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- Greek alphabet (~800 BCE): Added vowels, adapted letter forms
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- Greek alphabet (~800 BCE): Added vowels, adapted letter forms @t[~800 BCE]
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- Aramaic alphabet: Ancestor of Hebrew, Arabic, Syriac, and many Asian scripts
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- Latin alphabet (via Greek and Etruscan): Used by most of the modern world
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- South Arabian script: Ancestor of Ethiopic (Ge'ez) [^2]
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