[2026-02-23T00:02:41+00:00] 2ac383 | Ancient Egypt
status: UPDATED | Ancient Egypt | changes: fixed duplicate heading; added First Intermediate Period, Second Intermediate Period, Third Intermediate Period, Late Period to Major Periods with temporal tags; added Narmer Palette to Achievements; added Shaw (2000) as [^2] source; filed Vikunja bug #89 for MCP transport closed error
duration: 154s
[2026-02-23T00:05:04+00:00] 2eca19 | Battle of Gaugamela
status: UPDATED | Battle of Gaugamela | changes: Fixed duplicate title heading; enriched with Encyclopaedia Iranica (Badian) scholarship adding astronomical date confirmation, location clarification, Mazaeus detail, lunar eclipse omen, Persian sarissae, unreliable ancient troop numbers note, Persepolis capture date, and new [^3] reference; filed bug for apply_review_answers silent failure
The Code of Hammurabi (~1754 BCE) is one of the most complete and well-known ancient legal codes, inscribed on a basalt stele and containing 282 laws governing Babylonian society. @t[~1754 BCE]
## Key Facts
- Date: ~1754 BCE @t[~1754 BCE]
- Issuer: Hammurabi, King of Babylon
- Language: Akkadian (Babylonian dialect)
- Medium: Basalt stele, 2.25 m tall
- Current location: Louvre Museum, Paris (discovered at Susa, 1901)
- Date: ~1754 BCE (Wikipedia/Roth give range 1755–1751 BCE)@t[~1754 BCE]
- Issuer: Hammurabi, sixth king of the First Babylonian Dynasty
- Language: Akkadian (Old Babylonian dialect), written in cuneiform script
- Medium: Black basalt stele, 2.25 m tall (some older sources describe the material as diorite) [^3]
- Current location: Louvre Museum, Paris (discovered at Susa, Iran, 1901–1902) [^3]
- Weight: approximately 4 tons
## Structure
- Prologue: Hammurabi as divinely appointed shepherd of his people
- 282 laws organized by topic
- Prologue: Hammurabi as divinely appointed shepherd of his people; relief at top depicts Hammurabi receiving authority from Shamash, the sun god [^1]
- 282 laws organized by topic, written vertically in cuneiform
- Epilogue: Blessings for those who uphold the laws, curses for those who deface the stele [^1]
## Legal Principles
- *Lex talionis*: "An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth" (with class-based modifications)
- *Lex talionis*: "An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth" (with class-based modifications) [^2]
- Three social classes: *awilum* (free), *mushkenum* (dependent), *wardum* (slave)
- Covers: Property, trade, family law, labor, personal injury, agriculture
- Presumption of innocence in some cases; trial by ordeal in others [^2]
- Prescribed specific penalties for each crime; limited retribution to proportional response
## Discovery and Transmission
- The stele was taken as plunder to Susa by the Elamite king Shutruk-Nahhunte around 1158 BCE, approximately 600 years after its creation
- Rediscovered by French archaeologists at Susa in 1901–1902
- The text was copied and studied by Mesopotamian scribes for over a millennium after its creation, attesting to its lasting authority [^4]
## Significance
- Not the earliest code (preceded by Code of Ur-Nammu) but the most complete
- Not the earliest code (preceded by Code of Ur-Nammu, ~2100–2050 BCE) but the longest, best-organized, and best-preserved legal text from the ancient Near East [^4]
- Provides detailed picture of Old Babylonian society
- Influenced later Near Eastern legal traditions
- Influenced later Near Eastern legal traditions; parallels noted with the Law of Moses in the Torah [^4]
- Continues to be studied for its influence on modern legal jurisprudence
---
[^1]: Roth, M.T. *Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia Minor* (1997)
- [x]`@q[missing]` Line 10: "Date: ~1754 BCE" - what is the source?
> Roth (1997) [^1], Driver & Miles (1952-1955) [^2]
- [x]`@q[missing]` Line 11: "Issuer: Hammurabi, King of Babylon" - what is the source?
> Roth (1997) [^1], Driver & Miles (1952-1955) [^2]
- [x]`@q[missing]` Line 12: "Language: Akkadian (Babylonian dialect)" - what is the source?
> Roth (1997) [^1], Driver & Miles (1952-1955) [^2]
- [x]`@q[missing]` Line 13: "Medium: Basalt stele, 2.25 m tall" - what is the source?
> Roth (1997) [^1], Driver & Miles (1952-1955) [^2]
- [x]`@q[missing]` Line 14: "Current location: Louvre Museum, Paris (discovered at Susa, 1901)" - what is the source?
> Roth (1997) [^1], Driver & Miles (1952-1955) [^2]
- [x]`@q[missing]` Line 17: "Prologue: Hammurabi as divinely appointed shepherd of his people" - what is the source?
> Roth (1997) [^1], Driver & Miles (1952-1955) [^2]
- [x]`@q[missing]` Line 18: "282 laws organized by topic" - what is the source?
> Roth (1997) [^1], Driver & Miles (1952-1955) [^2]
- [x]`@q[missing]` Line 22: "*Lex talionis*: "An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth" (with class-based mo..." - what is the source?
> Roth (1997) [^1], Driver & Miles (1952-1955) [^2]
- [x]`@q[missing]` Line 23: "Three social classes: *awilum* (free), *mushkenum* (dependent), *wardum* (slave)" - what is the source?
> Roth (1997) [^1], Driver & Miles (1952-1955) [^2]
- [x]`@q[missing]` Line 24: "Covers: Property, trade, family law, labor, personal injury, agriculture" - what is the source?
> Roth (1997) [^1], Driver & Miles (1952-1955) [^2]
- [x]`@q[missing]` Line 28: "Not the earliest code (preceded by Code of Ur-Nammu) but the most complete" - what is the source?
> Roth (1997) [^1], Driver & Miles (1952-1955) [^2]
- [x]`@q[missing]` Line 29: "Provides detailed picture of Old Babylonian society" - what is the source?
> Roth (1997) [^1], Driver & Miles (1952-1955) [^2]
- [x]`@q[missing]` Line 30: "Influenced later Near Eastern legal traditions" - what is the source?
> Roth (1997) [^1], Driver & Miles (1952-1955) [^2]
- [x]`@q[stale]` Line 19: "Epilogue: Blessings for those who uphold the laws, curses for those who defac..." - Roth source from 1997 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Scholarship remains current. Roth's work on ancient law codes is still authoritative.
- [x]`@q[stale]` Line 25: "Presumption of innocence in some cases; trial by ordeal in others [^2]" - Driver source from 1952 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Scholarship remains current. Driver & Miles' work on Babylonian law is still foundational.
[^3]: Louvre Museum. "The Code of Hammurabi." louvre.fr (accessed 2026)
[^4]: Wikipedia contributors. "Code of Hammurabi." *Wikipedia* (accessed 2026-02-23)
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