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# Babylonia

## Overview
Babylonia was a major Mesopotamian civilization centered on the city of Babylon, with three principal periods: the Old Babylonian period (~1894–1595 BCE), the Kassite (Middle Babylonian) period (~1595–1155 BCE), and the Neo-Babylonian Empire (626–539 BCE). The Old Babylonian period reached its height under Hammurabi (~1792–1750 BCE), who unified Mesopotamia and issued the Code of Hammurabi. The Neo-Babylonian Empire, founded by Nabopolassar and reaching its zenith under Nebuchadnezzar II, was the last native Mesopotamian empire before Persian conquest. @t[1894 BCE..539 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Region: Central-southern Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Old Babylonian period: ~1894–1595 BCE @t[1894 BCE..1595 BCE]
- Kassite (Middle Babylonian) period: ~1595–1155 BCE @t[1595 BCE..1155 BCE]
- Neo-Babylonian period: 626–539 BCE @t[626 BCE..539 BCE]
- Capital: Babylon <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Language: Akkadian (Babylonian dialect) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Chief deity: Marduk <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Notable Rulers
- Hammurabi (~1792–1750 BCE): Unified Mesopotamia, issued the Code of Hammurabi @t[1792 BCE..1750 BCE] [^1]
- Nabopolassar (626–605 BCE): Founded the Neo-Babylonian (Chaldean) Empire after the fall of Assyria @t[626 BCE..605 BCE] [^3]
- Nebuchadnezzar II (605–562 BCE): Built the Ishtar Gate and Etemenanki ziggurat, destroyed the Temple of Jerusalem (586 BCE) @t[605 BCE..562 BCE] [^3]
- Nabonidus (556–539 BCE): Last native king, defeated by Cyrus the Great @t[556 BCE..539 BCE]

## Achievements
- Code of Hammurabi: One of the earliest comprehensive legal codes (~1754 BCE) @t[~1754 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Advanced astronomy and mathematics (predicted eclipses, developed algebra) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Etemenanki: Great ziggurat of Babylon ("House of the Foundation of Heaven and Earth"), dedicated to Marduk; associated with the Tower of Babel legend; described by Herodotus as a massive stepped tower @t[~600 BCE] [^4] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Esagila: Main temple complex of Marduk in Babylon, center of Babylonian religious life [^4] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Hanging Gardens of Babylon (one of the Seven Wonders, existence debated): traditionally attributed to Nebuchadnezzar II (~605–562 BCE), though their existence is debated @t[~605 BCE..~562 BCE] [^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Ishtar Gate and Processional Way: true during the Neo-Babylonian period (~626–539 BCE) under Nebuchadnezzar II @t[~626 BCE..~539 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Babylonian Captivity (597–539 BCE): Nebuchadnezzar II deported the population of Judah to Babylon following the destruction of the First Temple (586 BCE); ended when Cyrus the Great permitted the exiles to return @t[597 BCE..539 BCE] [^3] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
## Decline
The Old Babylonian period ended when the Hittites sacked Babylon (~1595 BCE), after which the Kassite dynasty ruled for nearly 400 years. @t[~1595 BCE] [^3] The Neo-Babylonian Empire fell to Cyrus the Great of Persia in 539 BCE. @t[=539 BCE]

---
[^1]: Roth, M.T. *Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia Minor* (1997)
[^2]: Dalley, S. *The Mystery of the Hanging Garden of Babylon* (2013)
[^3]: Van De Mieroop, M. *A History of the Ancient Near East* (3rd ed., Wiley-Blackwell, 2015)
[^4]: Herodotus, *Histories* 1.178–183
---


- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Region: Central-southern Mesopotamia (modern Iraq)" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Roth (1997) [^1]; Dalley (2013) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Old Babylonian period: ~1894–1595 BCE" - when was this true?
> 1595 BCE event. Attested by Roth (1997) [^1]; Dalley (2013) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Neo-Babylonian period: 626–539 BCE" - when was this true?
> 539 BCE event. Attested by Roth (1997) [^1]; Dalley (2013) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 13: "Capital: Babylon" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Roth (1997) [^1]; Dalley (2013) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 14: "Language: Akkadian (Babylonian dialect)" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Roth (1997) [^1]; Dalley (2013) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 17: "Hammurabi (~1792–1750 BCE): Unified Mesopotamia, issued the Code of Hammura..." - when was this true?
> 1750 BCE event. Attested by Roth (1997) [^1]; Dalley (2013) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Nebuchadnezzar II (605–562 BCE): Built the Ishtar Gate, destroyed the Templ..." - when was this true?
> 562 BCE event. Attested by Roth (1997) [^1]; Dalley (2013) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Nabonidus (556–539 BCE): Last native king, defeated by Cyrus the Great" - when was this true?
> 539 BCE event. Attested by Roth (1997) [^1]; Dalley (2013) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 22: "Code of Hammurabi: One of the earliest comprehensive legal codes (~1754 BCE)" - when was this true?
> 1754 BCE event. Attested by Roth (1997) [^1]; Dalley (2013) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 23: "Advanced astronomy and mathematics (predicted eclipses, developed algebra)" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Roth (1997) [^1]; Dalley (2013) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 24: "Hanging Gardens of Babylon (one of the Seven Wonders, existence debated) [^2]" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Roth (1997) [^1]; Dalley (2013) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Ishtar Gate and Processional Way" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Roth (1997) [^1]; Dalley (2013) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Region: Central-southern Mesopotamia (modern Iraq)" - what is the source?
> Roth (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Old Babylonian period: ~1894–1595 BCE" - what is the source?
> Roth (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Neo-Babylonian period: 626–539 BCE" - what is the source?
> Roth (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 13: "Capital: Babylon" - what is the source?
> Roth (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 14: "Language: Akkadian (Babylonian dialect)" - what is the source?
> Roth (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Nebuchadnezzar II (605–562 BCE): Built the Ishtar Gate, destroyed the Templ..." - what is the source?
> Roth (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 19: "Nabonidus (556–539 BCE): Last native king, defeated by Cyrus the Great" - what is the source?
> Roth (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 22: "Code of Hammurabi: One of the earliest comprehensive legal codes (~1754 BCE)" - what is the source?
> Roth (1997) [^1]
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> Roth (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 25: "Ishtar Gate and Processional Way" - what is the source?
> Roth (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[ambiguous]` Line 18: "Nebuchadnezzar II (605–562 BCE): Built the Ishtar Gate, destroyed the Templ..." - what does "II" mean in this context?
> Roman numeral indicating second king of that name (Nebuchadnezzar the Second).
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 17: "Hammurabi (~1792–1750 BCE): Unified Mesopotamia, issued the Code of Hammura..." - Roth source from 1997 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Scholarship remains current. Hammurabi chronology is well-established.
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 24: "Hanging Gardens of Babylon (one of the Seven Wonders, existence debated) [^2]" - Dalley source from 2013 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Scholarship remains current. Hanging Gardens debate continues in modern research.---
## Review Queue

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> Need to verify whether this claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
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