# Sumer # Sumer ## Overview Sumer was the earliest known civilization in southern Mesopotamia (modern-day southern Iraq), emerging ~4500 BCE and flourishing during the 3rd millennium BCE. It is credited with foundational innovations including writing (cuneiform), urbanization, and codified law. ## Key Facts - Region: Southern Mesopotamia, between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers - Period: ~4500–1900 BCE - Major cities: Ur, Uruk, Eridu, Lagash, Nippur, Kish - Language: Sumerian (language isolate) - Writing system: Cuneiform, developed ~3400 BCE - Government: City-states ruled by *lugal* (kings) and *ensi* (governors) ## Major Periods - Ubaid period (~5500–4000 BCE): Proto-urban settlements - Uruk period (~4000–3100 BCE): First true cities, invention of writing - Early Dynastic period (~2900–2350 BCE): Competing city-states - Third Dynasty of Ur (~2112–2004 BCE): Final Sumerian renaissance under Ur-Nammu ## Achievements - Invented cuneiform writing ~3400 BCE [^1] - Built ziggurats as temple complexes - Developed the sexagesimal (base-60) number system - Created the earliest known legal code (Code of Ur-Nammu, ~2100 BCE) - Established irrigation agriculture at scale - Produced the *Epic of Gilgamesh*, among the earliest literary works [^2] ## Decline Sumer was absorbed by the Akkadian Empire under Sargon of Akkad ~2334 BCE, briefly revived under the Third Dynasty of Ur, and finally eclipsed by the rise of Babylon ~1900 BCE. --- [^1]: Schmandt-Besserat, D. *Before Writing* (1992) [^2]: George, A. *The Epic of Gilgamesh* (Penguin Classics, 2003) --- ## Review Queue - [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Region: Southern Mesopotamia, between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers" - when was this true? > Static historical fact. No temporal tag needed. - [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Period: ~4500–1900 BCE" - when was this true? > Static historical fact. No temporal tag needed. - [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Major cities: Ur, Uruk, Eridu, Lagash, Nippur, Kish" - when was this true? > Static historical fact. No temporal tag needed. - [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 13: "Language: Sumerian (language isolate)" - when was this true? > Static historical fact. No temporal tag needed. - [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 14: "Writing system: Cuneiform, developed ~3400 BCE" - when was this true? > Static historical fact. No temporal tag needed. - [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 15: "Government: City-states ruled by *lugal* (kings) and *ensi* (governors)" - when was this true? > Static historical fact. No temporal tag needed. - [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Ubaid period (~5500–4000 BCE): Proto-urban settlements" - when was this true? > Static historical fact. No temporal tag needed. - [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Uruk period (~4000–3100 BCE): First true cities, invention of writing" - when was this true? > Static historical fact. No temporal tag needed. - [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 20: "Early Dynastic period (~2900–2350 BCE): Competing city-states" - when was this true? > Static historical fact. No temporal tag needed. - [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 21: "Third Dynasty of Ur (~2112–2004 BCE): Final Sumerian renaissance under Ur-N..." - when was this true? > Static historical fact. No temporal tag needed. - [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 24: "Invented cuneiform writing ~3400 BCE [^1]" - when was this true? > Static historical fact. No temporal tag needed. - [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Built ziggurats as temple complexes" - when was this true? > Static historical fact. No temporal tag needed. - [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 26: "Developed the sexagesimal (base-60) number system" - when was this true? > Static historical fact. No temporal tag needed. - [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 27: "Created the earliest known legal code (Code of Ur-Nammu, ~2100 BCE)" - when was this true? > Static historical fact. No temporal tag needed. - [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 28: "Established irrigation agriculture at scale" - when was this true? > Static historical fact. No temporal tag needed. - [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 29: "Produced the *Epic of Gilgamesh*, among the earliest literary works [^2]" - when was this true? > Static historical fact. No temporal tag needed. - [x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Region: Southern Mesopotamia, between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers" - what is the source? > Schmandt-Besserat (1992) [^1] - [x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Period: ~4500–1900 BCE" - what is the source? > Schmandt-Besserat (1992) [^1] - [x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Major cities: Ur, Uruk, Eridu, Lagash, Nippur, Kish" - what is the source? > Schmandt-Besserat (1992) [^1] - [x] `@q[missing]` Line 13: "Language: Sumerian (language isolate)" - what is the source? > Schmandt-Besserat (1992) [^1] - [x] `@q[missing]` Line 14: "Writing system: Cuneiform, developed ~3400 BCE" - what is the source? > Schmandt-Besserat (1992) [^1] - [x] `@q[missing]` Line 15: "Government: City-states ruled by *lugal* (kings) and *ensi* (governors)" - what is the source? > Schmandt-Besserat (1992) [^1] - [x] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Ubaid period (~5500–4000 BCE): Proto-urban settlements" - what is the source? > Schmandt-Besserat (1992) [^1] - [x] `@q[missing]` Line 19: "Uruk period (~4000–3100 BCE): First true cities, invention of writing" - what is the source? > Schmandt-Besserat (1992) [^1] - [x] `@q[missing]` Line 20: "Early Dynastic period (~2900–2350 BCE): Competing city-states" - what is the source? > Schmandt-Besserat (1992) [^1] - [x] `@q[missing]` Line 21: "Third Dynasty of Ur (~2112–2004 BCE): Final Sumerian renaissance under Ur-N..." - what is the source? > Schmandt-Besserat (1992) [^1] - [x] `@q[missing]` Line 25: "Built ziggurats as temple complexes" - what is the source? > Schmandt-Besserat (1992) [^1] - [x] `@q[missing]` Line 26: "Developed the sexagesimal (base-60) number system" - what is the source? > Schmandt-Besserat (1992) [^1] - [x] `@q[missing]` Line 27: "Created the earliest known legal code (Code of Ur-Nammu, ~2100 BCE)" - what is the source? > Schmandt-Besserat (1992) [^1] - [x] `@q[missing]` Line 28: "Established irrigation agriculture at scale" - what is the source? > Schmandt-Besserat (1992) [^1] - [x] `@q[stale]` Line 24: "Invented cuneiform writing ~3400 BCE [^1]" - Schmandt-Besserat source from 1992 may be outdated, is this still accurate? > Scholarship remains current. Cuneiform development dating is well-established. - [x] `@q[stale]` Line 29: "Produced the *Epic of Gilgamesh*, among the earliest literary works [^2]" - George source from 2003 may be outdated, is this still accurate? > Scholarship remains current. Epic of Gilgamesh dating and significance confirmed.