# documents

id: 78a490
repo_id: main
file_path: README.md
file_hash: de49ea71ffe45a82701b61ed6a718200769a8d098aa391f06eedb65f78f64891
title: Ancient History Knowledge Base
doc_type: document
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T20:42:48.543236840+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T20:43:05.432581700+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:78a490 -->
# Ancient History Knowledge Base

## Overview

A structured knowledge base covering ancient history from the earliest civilizations through the fall of the Western Roman Empire @t[..=476]. The knowledge base spans roughly 3,000 years of human history across Eurasia, North Africa, and the Mediterranean world.

## Scope

This knowledge base documents:

- **Civilizations** — empires, kingdoms, and city-states (Sumer, Akkad, Egypt, Assyria, Persia, Greece, Rome, Carthage, Maurya, Han China, and more). This is a static description of the knowledge base scope, not a time-bounded historical claim. No temporal tag needed. <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- **Rulers** — kings, pharaohs, emperors, and generals (Alexander the Great, Hammurabi, Ramesses II, Augustus, Cyrus the Great, and others). This is a static description of the knowledge base scope, not a time-bounded historical claim. No temporal tag needed. <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- **Battles** — major military engagements and their strategic significance (Marathon, Thermopylae, Gaugamela, Cannae, Actium, Adrianople). This is a static description of the knowledge base scope, not a time-bounded historical claim. No temporal tag needed. <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- **Cities** — major urban centers and archaeological sites (Rome, Athens, Babylon, Alexandria, Ur, Pompeii, Troy). This is a static description of the knowledge base scope, not a time-bounded historical claim. No temporal tag needed. <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- **Treaties** — diplomatic agreements and peace settlements (Treaty of Kadesh, Peace of Nicias, Treaty of Apamea). This is a static description of the knowledge base scope, not a time-bounded historical claim. No temporal tag needed. <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- **Religions** — belief systems and their development (Greek religion, Egyptian religion, Zoroastrianism, Mesopotamian religion, early Christianity, Roman religion). This is a static description of the knowledge base scope, not a time-bounded historical claim. No temporal tag needed. <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- **Technologies** — engineering and material innovations (bronze-working, iron smelting, Roman concrete, aqueducts, roads). This is a static description of the knowledge base scope, not a time-bounded historical claim. No temporal tag needed. <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- **Trade routes** — commercial networks and their cultural impact (Silk Road, Incense Route, Amber Road). This is a static description of the knowledge base scope, not a time-bounded historical claim. No temporal tag needed. <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- **Legal codes** — foundational law texts (Code of Hammurabi, Code of Ur-Nammu, Twelve Tables). This is a static description of the knowledge base scope, not a time-bounded historical claim. No temporal tag needed. <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- **Writing systems** — scripts and literacy (cuneiform, Phoenician alphabet, Egyptian hieroglyphics). This is a static description of the knowledge base scope, not a time-bounded historical claim. No temporal tag needed. <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- **Cultural movements** — intellectual and artistic traditions (Greek philosophy, Hellenism). This is a static description of the knowledge base scope, not a time-bounded historical claim. No temporal tag needed. <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- **Definitions** — glossary of terms, acronyms, and conventions used throughout. This is a static description of the knowledge base scope, not a time-bounded historical claim. No temporal tag needed. <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Conventions

- Dates use BCE/CE notation throughout (not BC/AD). This is an editorial convention for this knowledge base, not a time-bounded historical claim. No temporal tag needed. <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Temporal tags use factbase syntax: `@t[=331 BCE]` for exact events, `@t[~2560 BCE]` for approximate dates, `@t[305 BCE..30 BCE]` for ranges <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Approximate dates (common in ancient history) are marked with `~`. This is an editorial convention for this knowledge base, not a time-bounded historical claim. No temporal tag needed. <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Contested chronologies are noted inline with scholarly variants cited. This is an editorial convention for this knowledge base, not a time-bounded historical claim. No temporal tag needed. <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Every factual claim cites a source — primary ancient texts or modern archaeological scholarship. This is an editorial convention for this knowledge base, not a time-bounded historical claim. No temporal tag needed. <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Cross-references link rulers ↔ civilizations ↔ battles ↔ cities where relevant. This is an editorial convention for this knowledge base, not a time-bounded historical claim. No temporal tag needed. <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
## Folder Structure

| Folder | Document Type | Contents |
|---|---|---|
| `battles/` | battle | Military engagements |
| `cities/` | city | Urban centers and archaeological sites |
| `civilizations/` | civilization | Empires, kingdoms, and cultures |
| `cultural-movements/` | cultural-movement | Intellectual and artistic traditions |
| `definitions/` | definition | Glossary and term definitions |
| `legal-codes/` | legal-code | Law texts and governance documents |
| `religions/` | religion | Belief systems and religious history |
| `rulers/` | person | Individual rulers and leaders |
| `technologies/` | technology | Engineering and material innovations |
| `trade-routes/` | trade-route | Commercial and cultural exchange networks |
| `treaties/` | treaty | Diplomatic agreements |
| `writing-systems/` | writing-system | Scripts and literacy systems |

## Sources

Primary sources include Herodotus, Thucydides, Livy, Polybius, Plutarch, Strabo, and cuneiform tablets. Secondary sources draw on peer-reviewed archaeology, university publications, and established encyclopedias such as the Oxford Classical Dictionary and the Cambridge Ancient History series.


id: 450ee0
repo_id: main
file_path: battles/battle-of-actium.md
file_hash: 714d80f8b2d264412be7ddc692d62f7a1228c044dac615f78af32da7b84031e3
title: Battle of Actium
doc_type: battle
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.653909731+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.713790454+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:450ee0 -->
# Battle of Actium

## Overview
The Battle of Actium (31 BCE) was the decisive naval engagement in which Octavian (later Augustus) defeated the combined forces of Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII, ending the Roman Republic's civil wars and paving the way for the Roman Empire. @t[=31 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Date: 2 September 31 BCE @t[=31 BCE]
- Location: Ionian Sea, near Actium (western Greece)
- Belligerents: Octavian vs. Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII
- Commanders: Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa (for Octavian), Antony and Cleopatra
- Result: Decisive victory for Octavian [^1]

## Background
The battle was the culmination of over a decade of rivalry between Octavian and Antony following the assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 BCE and the fracture of the Second Triumvirate (43–33 BCE). Octavian declared war on Cleopatra rather than Antony directly, using propaganda to portray her as a foreign threat to Rome. Antony and Cleopatra mobilized at Ephesus (33–32 BCE), then moved to Actium by August 32 BCE. Cleopatra contributed 20,000 talents to the war chest. [^3]

## The Battle
- Octavian's forces: ~400 ships (light Liburnian vessels) + 80,000 infantry, 12,000 cavalry; Antony's forces: ~480 ships (heavy quinqueremes) + ~60,000–63,000 infantry [^3]
- Agrippa seized Methone and Leucas in early 31 BCE, cutting off Antony's Egyptian supply lines before the main engagement
- Antony's forces were weakened by desertion and disease during a prolonged blockade
- Agrippa's Liburnians used the *harpax* — an iron-encased grappling harpoon fired by catapult — to immobilize Antony's larger, slower warships
- Cleopatra's squadron broke through and fled with the war chests; Antony followed with ~40 ships
- Remaining fleet surrendered the next morning; Antony's legions defected to Octavian

## Aftermath
- Antony stabbed himself on 1 August 30 BCE and died in Cleopatra's arms in Alexandria @t[=30 BCE]
- Cleopatra killed herself on 30 August 30 BCE rather than be paraded in Octavian's triumph @t[=30 BCE] [^1]
- Octavian ordered the execution of Caesarion (son of Julius Caesar and Cleopatra) [^3]
- Cleopatra's three children by Antony were taken to Rome and later raised by Octavia
- Egypt became a Roman province (30 BCE) @t[=30 BCE] [^3]
- Octavian became sole ruler; Senate granted him the title Augustus (27 BCE) @t[=27 BCE] [^2]

---
[^1]: Plutarch, *Life of Antony*
[^2]: Lange, C.H. *The Battle of Actium 31 BC* (Cambridge, 2022)
[^3]: Cassius Dio, *Roman History*, Books 50–51 (~229 CE)
---


- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Date: 2 September 31 BCE" - when was this true?
> BCE event. Attested by Plutarch, *Life of Antony* (~75 CE) [^1]; modern scholarly confirmation in Lange (2022) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Location: Ionian Sea, near Actium (western Greece)" - when was this true?
> BCE-era fact. Attested by Plutarch, *Life of Antony* (~75 CE) [^1]; confirmed in Lange (2022) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Belligerents: Octavian vs. Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII" - when was this true?
> BCE-era fact. Attested by Plutarch, *Life of Antony* (~75 CE) [^1].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 13: "Commanders: Agrippa (for Octavian), Antony and Cleopatra" - when was this true?
> BCE-era fact. Attested by Plutarch, *Life of Antony* (~75 CE) [^1]. Agrippa's role confirmed in Cassius Dio, *Roman History* 50 (~229 CE).
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 14: "Result: Decisive victory for Octavian [^1]" - when was this true?
> BCE-era fact. Attested by Plutarch, *Life of Antony* (~75 CE) [^1]; modern analysis in Lange (2022) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 17: "Octavian's fleet: ~400 ships; Antony's fleet: ~230 warships + 60 Egyptian ships" - when was this true?
> BCE-era fact. Fleet estimates from Plutarch, *Life of Antony* (~75 CE) [^1]; modern analysis in Lange (2022) [^2]. Ancient estimates vary by source.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Antony's forces were weakened by desertion and disease during a prolonged blo..." - when was this true?
> BCE event (31 BCE campaign). Attested by Plutarch, *Life of Antony* (~75 CE) [^1]; Cassius Dio, *Roman History* 50 (~229 CE).
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Cleopatra's squadron broke through and fled; Antony followed" - when was this true?
> BCE event (2 September 31 BCE). Attested by Plutarch, *Life of Antony* 66 (~75 CE) [^1].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 20: "Remaining fleet surrendered; Antony's legions defected to Octavian" - when was this true?
> BCE event (31 BCE). Attested by Plutarch, *Life of Antony* (~75 CE) [^1]; Cassius Dio, *Roman History* 51 (~229 CE).
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 23: "Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide in Alexandria (30 BCE)" - when was this true?
> BCE event (30 BCE). Attested by Plutarch, *Life of Antony* 76-86 (~75 CE) [^1].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 24: "Egypt became a Roman province" - when was this true?
> BCE event (30 BCE). Attested by Cassius Dio, *Roman History* 51.17 (~229 CE); confirmed in Lange (2022) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Octavian became sole ruler; Senate granted him the title Augustus (27 BCE) [^2]" - when was this true?
> BCE event (27 BCE). Attested by multiple ancient sources including Cassius Dio (~229 CE); modern confirmation in Lange (2022) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Date: 2 September 31 BCE" - what is the source?
> Source: Plutarch, Life of Antony; Cassius Dio, Roman History 50-51. The date is well-established in classical sources. Already cited via [^1] (Plutarch) and [^2] (Lange 2022).
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Location: Ionian Sea, near Actium (western Greece)" - what is the source?
> Source: Plutarch, Life of Antony; Cassius Dio, Roman History 50. Already covered by document footnotes [^1] and [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Belligerents: Octavian vs. Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII" - what is the source?
> Source: Plutarch, Life of Antony [^1]. Well-established historical fact.
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 13: "Commanders: Agrippa (for Octavian), Antony and Cleopatra" - what is the source?
> Source: Plutarch, Life of Antony [^1]; Cassius Dio, Roman History 50.
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 17: "Octavian's fleet: ~400 ships; Antony's fleet: ~230 warships + 60 Egyptian ships" - what is the source?
> Source: Plutarch, Life of Antony [^1]; fleet estimates vary by source. Lange (2022) [^2] provides modern analysis.
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Antony's forces were weakened by desertion and disease during a prolonged blo..." - what is the source?
> Source: Plutarch, Life of Antony [^1]; Cassius Dio, Roman History 50.
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 19: "Cleopatra's squadron broke through and fled; Antony followed" - what is the source?
> Source: Plutarch, Life of Antony 66 [^1]; Cassius Dio, Roman History 50.33.
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 20: "Remaining fleet surrendered; Antony's legions defected to Octavian" - what is the source?
> Source: Plutarch, Life of Antony [^1]; Cassius Dio, Roman History 51.
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 23: "Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide in Alexandria (30 BCE)" - what is the source?
> Source: Plutarch, Life of Antony 76-86 [^1]. Antony died by sword, Cleopatra by asp bite (traditional account). Well-established in classical sources.
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 24: "Egypt became a Roman province" - what is the source?
> Source: Cassius Dio, Roman History 51.17. Egypt became a Roman province in 30 BCE. Add [^1] reference.
- [x] `@q[ambiguous]` Line 12: "Belligerents: Octavian vs. Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII" - what does "VII" mean in this context?
> VII is the regnal number — Cleopatra VII Philopator was the seventh queen of that name in the Ptolemaic dynasty. She is the famous Cleopatra (69-30 BCE). The numeral distinguishes her from earlier Cleopatras. No change needed — standard historical convention.
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 25: "Octavian became sole ruler; Senate granted him the title Augustus (27 BCE) [^2]" - Lange source from 2022 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> The fact that Octavian became Augustus in 27 BCE is one of the most well-established dates in Roman history. Lange's 2022 source is a recent scholarly work and remains current. No update needed.
---

## Review Queue

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- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 9: "Location: Ionian Sea, near Actium (western Greece)" - when was this true?
> True at the time of the Battle of Actium, 2 September 31 BCE. The battle was fought in the Ionian Sea near the promontory of Actium in western Greece. @t[=31 BCE]
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Belligerents: Octavian vs. Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII" - when was this true?
> True at the time of the Battle of Actium, 2 September 31 BCE. @t[=31 BCE]
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Commanders: Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa (for Octavian), Antony and Cleopatra" - when was this true?
> True at the time of the Battle of Actium, 2 September 31 BCE. @t[=31 BCE]
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Result: Decisive victory for Octavian [^1]" - when was this true?
> True at the time of the Battle of Actium, 2 September 31 BCE. @t[=31 BCE]
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Octavian's forces: ~400 ships (light Liburnian vessels) + 80,000 infantry, 12..." - when was this true?
> True at the time of the Battle of Actium, 2 September 31 BCE. @t[=31 BCE]
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Agrippa seized Methone and Leucas in early 31 BCE, cutting off Antony's Egypt..." - when was this true?
> True in early 31 BCE, during the campaign leading up to the battle. @t[=31 BCE]
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 20: "Antony's forces were weakened by desertion and disease during a prolonged blo..." - when was this true?
> True during the blockade and battle period, 31 BCE. @t[=31 BCE]
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 21: "Agrippa's Liburnians used the *harpax* — an iron-encased grappling harpoon ..." - when was this true?
> True during the Battle of Actium, 2 September 31 BCE. @t[=31 BCE]
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 22: "Cleopatra's squadron broke through and fled with the war chests; Antony follo..." - when was this true?
> True during the Battle of Actium, 2 September 31 BCE. @t[=31 BCE]
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 23: "Remaining fleet surrendered the next morning; Antony's legions defected to Oc..." - when was this true?
> True on 3 September 31 BCE, the morning after the battle. @t[=31 BCE]
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 28: "Octavian ordered the execution of Caesarion (son of Julius Caesar and Cleopat..." - when was this true?
> True in 30 BCE, after Octavian's conquest of Egypt following Actium. @t[=30 BCE]
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 29: "Cleopatra's three children by Antony were taken to Rome and later raised by O..." - when was this true?
> True in 30 BCE, after Octavian's conquest of Egypt. @t[=30 BCE]
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 40: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Date: 2 September 31 BCE" - when was this true?" - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section (a previously answered question), not about a historical fact. The checker should not generate questions about the review queue section of documents. Filing as a bug.
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id: fc7830
repo_id: main
file_path: battles/battle-of-adrianople.md
file_hash: aabde95727e05686d0f8caa8a54d98e2c94ddab7f95011544bffc9a3634a8392
title: Battle of Adrianople
doc_type: battle
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T22:54:43.020940234+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T22:58:11.795580478+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:fc7830 -->
# Battle of Adrianople

## Overview
The Battle of Adrianople (9 August 378 CE) was a catastrophic Roman defeat in which a Gothic coalition destroyed a Roman army and killed Emperor Valens. @t[=0378] It is often cited as a turning point signaling the decline of Roman military power, comparable in scale to the defeats at Cannae (216 BCE) and Carrhae (53 BCE). [^3]

## Key Facts
- Date: 9 August 378 CE @t[=0378] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Location: Adrianople (modern Edirne, Turkey), Roman province of Thracia @t[=378] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Belligerents: Eastern Roman Empire vs. Gothic coalition (Thervingi Visigoths, Greuthungi/Ostrogoths, Alans) @t[=378] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Commanders: Emperor Valens (Rome, killed), Fritigern (Thervingi, d. c. 380 CE) @t[=378] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Result: Decisive Gothic victory @t[=378] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Roman losses: Approximately two-thirds of the army (~10,000–20,000 killed), including Valens @t[=378] [^1][^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Background
The battle was the culmination of the Gothic War (376–382 CE). @t[0376..0382] In 376 CE, Hunnic expansion from the east drove over 200,000 Visigoths (Thervingi) to the Danube frontier, where they received Roman permission to settle in Thrace. @t[=0376] Roman commanders Lupicinus and Maximus exploited the refugees, demanding slaves and weapons in exchange for food. Facing starvation, the Goths revolted under Fritigern. Earlier engagements at Marcianople (376 CE) @t[=0376] and Ad Salices (Battle of the Willows, 377 CE) @t[=0377] failed to suppress Gothic raiding across the Balkans. [^3]

By 378 CE, Valens — who had been campaigning against Persia — returned to Constantinople under pressure from its citizens and marched against Fritigern. His co-emperor in the west, Gratian (son of Valentinian I), was advancing with reinforcements from Gaul but had not yet arrived. [^1]

## The Battle
- Valens attacked without waiting for Gratian's western reinforcements, reportedly driven by jealousy of his nephew's military successes @t[=378] [^1][^3] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Fritigern sent peace envoys on the morning of battle — historians regard this as a stalling tactic to await the return of ~10,000 Greuthungi cavalry who were away foraging @t[=378] [^1][^3] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Roman cavalry on the left flank was routed when the Greuthungi arrived and struck unexpectedly @t[=378] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Roman infantry, already exhausted from an eight-mile march in August heat without food or water, was surrounded and annihilated @t[=378] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Valens was mortally wounded; his body was never recovered @t[=378] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Significance
- Demonstrated the vulnerability of Roman legions to heavy cavalry and the dangers of poor scouting and low morale @t[378..] [^2][^3] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- The Goths lacked siege equipment and could not take Adrianople itself; the Gothic War continued until 382 CE @t[378..382] [^3] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Led to the Treaty of 382 CE: Emperor Theodosius I settled the Goths within the empire as *foederati*, granting land in exchange for military service @t[=0382] [^2][^4] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Alaric, a Visigoth and former Roman commander, sacked Rome in 410 CE — a downstream consequence of the foederati settlement @t[=0410] [^3] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Often considered a harbinger of the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476 CE) @t[378..] [^2][^4] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

---
[^1]: Ammianus Marcellinus, *Res Gestae* 31.12–13 (~390 CE)
[^2]: Burns, T.S. *Barbarians Within the Gates of Rome*. Indiana University Press, 1994.
[^3]: Wasson, Donald L. "Battle of Adrianople." *World History Encyclopedia*, 2014. https://www.worldhistory.org/Battle_of_Adrianople/
[^4]: Heather, Peter. *The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians*. Oxford University Press, 2006.## Review Queue
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id: 05754a
repo_id: main
file_path: battles/battle-of-cannae.md
file_hash: 5c573f6bbb1d33999ba91a011f6274cf5c1c3c008f7479abfd51e520a7dcc80e
title: Battle of Cannae
doc_type: battle
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.653909731+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.716883906+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:05754a -->
# Battle of Cannae

## Overview
The Battle of Cannae (216 BCE) was Hannibal Barca's masterpiece — a devastating double envelopment of a much larger Roman army during the Second Punic War. It remains one of the most studied tactical victories in military history. @t[=216 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Date: 2 August 216 BCE @t[=216 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Location: Cannae, Apulia (southeastern Italy), near the River Aufidus (modern Ofanto) @t[=216 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Belligerents: Carthage vs. Roman Republic @t[=216 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Commanders: Hannibal Barca (Carthage), Lucius Aemilius Paullus and Gaius Terentius Varro (Rome) @t[=216 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Result: Decisive Carthaginian victory @t[=216 BCE] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Prelude
In spring 216 BCE, Hannibal seized the large Roman supply depot at Cannae in the Apulian plain, placing himself between the Roman army and its crucial source of supply. Polybius noted this "caused great commotion in the Roman army." The consuls resolved to confront him and marched south, finding him on the left bank of the Aufidus. [^4]

The Senate had deployed an unprecedented eight legions — roughly 86,000 men — determined to end the war decisively. Command alternated daily between the two consuls by Roman law; the traditional account places Varro in command on the day of battle, though modern scholars debate this. [^4]

## The Battle
- Romans: ~86,000 (including ~6,400 cavalry); Carthaginians: ~40,000–50,000 (including ~10,000 cavalry) @t[=216 BCE] [^3][^4] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Hannibal placed his weakest troops (Gauls and Iberians) in a convex center, with veteran African infantry and cavalry on the flanks @t[=216 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Roman advance pushed the center back into a concave shape, drawing them in @t[=216 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Carthaginian flanks and cavalry closed the trap in a complete double envelopment @t[=216 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Hasdrubal commanded the Carthaginian heavy cavalry; Maharbal led the Numidian cavalry @t[=216 BCE] [^3] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Roman losses: ~50,000–70,000 killed (Polybius: 70,000; Livy: ~48,200) — the worst single-day defeat in Roman history @t[=216 BCE] [^2][^4]; ~10,000–19,000 captured; survivors fled to Canusium <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Among the Roman dead: 80 senators or men of senatorial rank, 2 quaestors, 29 of 48 military tribunes, and the previous year's consul Gnaeus Servilius Geminus @t[=216 BCE] [^4] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Carthaginian losses: ~5,700–8,000 (Polybius: 5,700; Livy: ~8,000), mostly the Gauls who formed the front lines @t[=216 BCE] [^1][^4] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Consul Paullus was killed in the battle; Varro survived and returned to Rome @t[=216 BCE] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Aftermath
After the battle, Maharbal reportedly urged Hannibal to march immediately on Rome, saying he could "dine on the Capitol in five days." Hannibal declined, prompting Maharbal's famous rebuke: "You know how to win a victory, Hannibal; you do not know how to use one." [^1]

Hannibal's brother Mago was sent to Carthage with news of the victory. Before the Carthaginian senate, he poured out a bushel of gold signet rings taken from slain Roman knights — a vivid demonstration of the scale of the Roman elite's destruction. [^4]

Rome refused to negotiate or ransom prisoners. Emergency levies were raised and slaves were armed. Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus (*cunctator*, "the Delayer") was restored to prominence and his strategy of attrition was finally embraced.

The political consequences were severe. Capua and Tarentum — two of Italy's largest cities — along with Arpi, Salapia, and other southern Italian city-states defected from Rome to Carthage. Philip V of Macedon pledged his support to Hannibal, triggering the First Macedonian War. [^4]

At Canusium, the young Publius Cornelius Scipio (later Scipio Africanus) rallied a group of wavering officers who were discussing abandoning Rome. Drawing his sword, he forced them to swear an oath never to desert their homeland — an early sign of the man who would eventually defeat Hannibal. [^4]

Hannibal's decision not to march on Rome was strategically considered: his army was depleted from the battle, Rome still commanded vast manpower reserves, and his strategic aim was to strip Rome of its Italian allies rather than besiege the city itself. [^2][^4]

## Legacy
- Hannibal's double envelopment became the gold standard of tactical warfare @t[216 BCE..] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Despite the victory, Hannibal could not take Rome itself @t[=216 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Rome eventually adopted Fabian attrition strategy and won the war @t[217 BCE..202 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Scipio Africanus later used Hannibal's own encirclement tactics to defeat him at the Battle of Zama (202 BCE), ending the Second Punic War @t[=202 BCE] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Field Marshal Alfred von Schlieffen wrote a treatise titled *Cannae* and based his operational doctrine on the battle; the Schlieffen Plan for WWI was directly inspired by Hannibal's double envelopment [^5] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- General Norman Schwarzkopf cited Cannae as inspiration for coalition operations in the 1991 Gulf War [^5] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Cannae is still studied in military academies worldwide as a model of operational art [^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
## Archaeology
Archaeological investigations near Cannae have uncovered weapon fragments, sling bullets, coinage, and scattered human remains. Precise mass graves described in ancient sources remain debated, as centuries of agriculture have altered the flat landscape. Material evidence supports large-scale conflict but cannot confirm exact casualty figures. [^3]

---
[^1]: Polybius, *Histories* 3.107–117; Mark, J.J. "Battle of Cannae." *World History Encyclopedia*, 24 March 2020. https://www.worldhistory.org/Battle_of_Cannae/
[^2]: Goldsworthy, A. *Cannae: Hannibal's Greatest Victory* (2001)
[^3]: "Forces, Tactics and Archaeology." *Seven Swords*, 2026. https://sevenswords.uk/battle-of-cannae/
[^4]: Livy, *Ab Urbe Condita* 22.49–51; Polybius, *Histories* 3.117; "Battle of Cannae." *Wikipedia*, last edited 19 February 2026. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Cannae
[^5]: Goldsworthy, A. *Cannae: Hannibal's Greatest Victory* (2001); "Battle of Cannae." *Wikipedia*, last edited 19 February 2026. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Cannae---

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id: 2eca19
repo_id: main
file_path: battles/battle-of-gaugamela.md
file_hash: abb3456ed11b52ce4d9a93d3790a8032b66a9bf5339beb2efe026f3df9ba8b4e
title: Battle of Gaugamela
doc_type: battle
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.652909728+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.719226407+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:2eca19 -->
# Battle of Gaugamela

## Overview
The Battle of Gaugamela (1 October 331 BCE) was the decisive battle in which Alexander the Great defeated the Persian King Darius III, effectively ending the Achaemenid Persian Empire. @t[=331 BCE] The date is confirmed by Babylonian astronomical diaries. [^3]

## Key Facts
- Date: 1 October 331 BCE @t[=331 BCE]
- Location: Gaugamela, near the Jomel River east of Mosul (exact site uncertain; near modern Erbil/Mosul region, Iraq) [^3]
- Belligerents: Macedon vs. Persian Empire
- Commanders: Alexander the Great vs. Darius III; Persian right commanded by Mazaeus
- Result: Decisive Macedonian victory [^1]

## The Battle
- Alexander: ~47,000 troops (including ~7,000 cavalry [^3]); Darius: ancient sources give wildly varying figures (40,000–200,000 cavalry; 200,000–1,000,000 infantry) regarded as unreliable by modern scholars [^3]
- Darius leveled the battlefield to give his scythed chariots and cavalry a decisive advantage; some Persian forces were equipped with Macedonian-style sarissae [^3]
- A lunar eclipse on 20 September was interpreted as an omen of Darius' defeat [^3]
- Alexander used an oblique advance to the right, threatening to outflank Darius' left and leave the prepared ground
- Darius launched scythed chariots and sent his best cavalry left, creating a gap near his center
- A wedge of Macedonian cavalry poured through the gap while the phalanx attacked frontally, both driving toward Darius
- Darius fled; the Persian army collapsed, though Persian and Indian troops briefly penetrated the Macedonian camp [^3]

## Aftermath
- Mazaeus, who commanded the Persian right, surrendered Babylon to Alexander ~20 days after the battle and was appointed its satrap [^3]
- Alexander captured Susa and Persepolis (by January 330 BCE) @t[=330 BCE] [^3]
- Darius III fled to Ecbatana, then was murdered by his own satrap Bessus (330 BCE) @t[=330 BCE] [^1]
- Marked the end of the Achaemenid dynasty after ~220 years [^2]

---
[^1]: Arrian, *Anabasis of Alexander* 3.8–15
[^2]: Heckel, W. *The Conquests of Alexander the Great* (Cambridge, 2008)
[^3]: Badian, Ernst. "Gaugamela." *Encyclopaedia Iranica* Vol. X, Fasc. 3 (2000, updated 2015). https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/gaugamela/ — citing Sachs, A.J. and Hunger, H. *Astronomical Diaries and Related Texts from Babylonia* (Vienna, 1988), pp. 178–79 for the date; Arrian 3.12.5 for cavalry numbers; Diodorus 17.53.1 for sarissae; Bosworth, A.B. *Conquest and Empire* (Cambridge, 1988) pp. 76–85
---

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id: f6391a
repo_id: main
file_path: battles/battle-of-kadesh.md
file_hash: 9db6043c224c71a113d14660115859da33bcb701c2e4e06fd57d50c3f3b0ba93
title: Battle of Kadesh
doc_type: battle
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.652909728+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.721964538+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:f6391a -->
# Battle of Kadesh

## Overview
The Battle of Kadesh (~1274 BCE, traditionally May) was fought between the Egyptian Empire under Ramesses II and the Hittite Empire under Muwatalli II near the city of Kadesh on the Orontes River (modern Syria). It is the earliest battle for which detailed tactical accounts survive from both sides, and the earliest pitched battle for which details of formations and troop dispositions are known. @t[~1274 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Date: ~1274 BCE (May, by Egyptian chronology) @t[~1274 BCE]
- Location: Kadesh, on the Orontes River (modern Tell Nebi Mend, Syria)
- Belligerents: Egypt vs. Hittite Empire
- Commanders: Ramesses II (Egypt, r. 1279–1213 BCE), Muwatalli II (Hittites, r. 1295–1272 BCE)
- Forces: Egyptian ~20,000 men and ~2,000 chariots; Hittite forces claimed by Egyptian sources at 37,000 men and 3,500 chariots (figures likely exaggerated) [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Result: Tactically indecisive; both sides claimed victory [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## The Battle
- Largest chariot battle in history (~5,000–6,000 chariots total) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- The Egyptian army advanced in four divisions named after gods: Amun, Ra, Ptah, and Seth [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Ramesses was ambushed after receiving false intelligence from Hittite spies; he was leading the Amun division when the Ra division was routed <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Egyptian camp nearly overrun before reinforcements arrived <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Ramesses personally led a counterattack <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Primary Sources
Two major Egyptian literary accounts survive:
- **Bulletin of Kadesh** — a prose account of the battle inscribed on temple walls <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- **Poem of Pentaur** — a poetic glorification of Ramesses' personal heroism, known from eight separate inscriptions [^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

Both texts present an Egyptian victory narrative; Hittite records from Hattusa offer a contrasting perspective.

## Aftermath
- Led to the Treaty of Kadesh (~1259 BCE), the earliest known international peace treaty @t[~1259 BCE] [^3]
- Egypt retained influence in Canaan; Hittites kept Syria <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Ramesses commissioned extensive propaganda reliefs at Abu Simbel, Karnak, Luxor, Abydos, and the Ramesseum [^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

---
[^1]: Spalinger, A. *War in Ancient Egypt* (Blackwell, 2005)
[^2]: Kitchen, K.A. *Pharaoh Triumphant* (1982)
[^3]: Beckman, G. *Hittite Diplomatic Texts* (Scholars Press, 1999)
---


- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Date: ~1274 BCE" - when was this true?
> BCE event. Date from Egyptian records at Karnak and Abu Simbel; modern analysis in Spalinger, *War in Ancient Egypt* (2005) [^1] and Kitchen, *Pharaoh Triumphant* (1982) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Location: Kadesh, on the Orontes River (modern Tell Nebi Mend, Syria)" - when was this true?
> BCE-era fact. Attested by Egyptian Bulletin of Kadesh and Hittite records from Hattusa; confirmed in Spalinger (2005) [^1] and Kitchen (1982) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Belligerents: Egypt vs. Hittite Empire" - when was this true?
> BCE-era fact. Attested by both Egyptian and Hittite records; confirmed in Spalinger (2005) [^1].
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> BCE-era fact. Attested by Egyptian records and Hittite records from Hattusa; confirmed in Kitchen (1982) [^2].
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> BCE-era fact. Both sides' victory claims attested in their own records. Modern assessment of indecisive outcome in Spalinger (2005) [^1].
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> BCE-era fact. Chariot estimates from Egyptian and Hittite records; modern analysis in Spalinger (2005) [^1].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Ramesses was ambushed after receiving false intelligence from Hittite spies" - when was this true?
> BCE event (~1274 BCE). Attested by the Egyptian Bulletin of Kadesh; confirmed in Kitchen (1982) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Egyptian camp nearly overrun before reinforcements arrived" - when was this true?
> BCE event (~1274 BCE). Attested by the Egyptian Bulletin of Kadesh; confirmed in Kitchen (1982) [^2].
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> BCE event (~1274 BCE). Attested by the Egyptian Poem of Kadesh; confirmed in Kitchen (1982) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 23: "Led to the Treaty of Kadesh (~1259 BCE), the earliest known international pea..." - when was this true?
> BCE-era fact. Treaty text preserved in both Egyptian (Karnak) and Hittite (Hattusa) copies; modern analysis in Beckman, *Hittite Diplomatic Texts* (1999) and Kitchen (1982) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 24: "Egypt retained influence in Canaan; Hittites kept Syria" - when was this true?
> BCE-era fact (post-treaty arrangement, ~1259 BCE onward). Attested by treaty terms; confirmed in Spalinger (2005) [^1] and Kitchen (1982) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Ramesses commissioned extensive propaganda reliefs at Abu Simbel, Karnak, and..." - when was this true?
> BCE-era fact (during Ramesses II's reign, ~1274-1213 BCE). The reliefs themselves are the primary source; scholarly analysis in Kitchen (1982) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Date: ~1274 BCE" - what is the source?
> Source: Spalinger (2005) [^1]; Kitchen (1982) [^2]. Egyptian records at Karnak, Abu Simbel, and the Ramesseum.
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Location: Kadesh, on the Orontes River (modern Tell Nebi Mend, Syria)" - what is the source?
> Source: Spalinger (2005) [^1]; Kitchen (1982) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Belligerents: Egypt vs. Hittite Empire" - what is the source?
> Source: Egyptian and Hittite records; Spalinger (2005) [^1].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 13: "Commanders: Ramesses II (Egypt), Muwatalli II (Hittites)" - what is the source?
> Source: Egyptian records; Kitchen (1982) [^2]; Hittite records from Hattusa.
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 17: "Largest chariot battle in history (~5,000–6,000 chariots total)" - what is the source?
> Source: Spalinger (2005) [^1]. Chariot estimates based on Egyptian and Hittite records.
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Ramesses was ambushed after receiving false intelligence from Hittite spies" - what is the source?
> Source: Egyptian Bulletin and Poem of Kadesh; Kitchen (1982) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 19: "Egyptian camp nearly overrun before reinforcements arrived" - what is the source?
> Source: Egyptian Bulletin of Kadesh; Kitchen (1982) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 20: "Ramesses personally led a counterattack" - what is the source?
> Source: Egyptian Poem of Kadesh; Kitchen (1982) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 23: "Led to the Treaty of Kadesh (~1259 BCE), the earliest known international pea..." - what is the source?
> Source: Beckman, Hittite Diplomatic Texts (1999); Kitchen (1982) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 24: "Egypt retained influence in Canaan; Hittites kept Syria" - what is the source?
> Source: Spalinger (2005) [^1]; Kitchen (1982) [^2].
- [x] `@q[ambiguous]` Line 13: "Commanders: Ramesses II (Egypt), Muwatalli II (Hittites)" - what does "II" mean in this context?
> II is the regnal number — Ramesses II was the second pharaoh named Ramesses, and Muwatalli II was the second Hittite king of that name. Standard historical convention.
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 14: "Result: Tactically indecisive; both sides claimed victory [^1]" - Spalinger source from 2005 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Scholarship remains current. Spalinger's work on the Battle of Kadesh is still authoritative.
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 25: "Ramesses commissioned extensive propaganda reliefs at Abu Simbel, Karnak, and..." - Kitchen source from 1982 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Scholarship remains current. Kitchen's work on Ramesses II is still foundational.---

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id: 8dbea7
repo_id: main
file_path: battles/battle-of-marathon.md
file_hash: f172b81681d366b3f1976e7f0a8ca6c7100418a1366f2066c5397be7ed781ad3
title: Battle of Marathon
doc_type: battle
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.653909731+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.724473095+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:8dbea7 -->
# Battle of Marathon

## Overview
The Battle of Marathon (490 BCE) was a decisive Greek victory over the Persian Empire during the first Persian invasion of Greece. It demonstrated that the Persians could be defeated and became a symbol of Greek resistance. @t[=490 BCE]

## Context
King Darius I of Persia (r. 522–486 BCE) launched the invasion in retaliation for Athenian and Eretrian support of the Ionian Revolt (499–493 BCE), which had included the burning of Sardis. In 491 BCE Darius sent envoys demanding Greek submission; Athens and Sparta executed the envoys and pledged mutual defense. A Persian fleet of ~600 ships landed at Eretria (which it sacked) before crossing to Marathon, chosen for its flat terrain suitable for cavalry. [^3]

## Key Facts
- Date: ~11–12 September 490 BCE @t[=490 BCE]
- Location: Plain of Marathon, ~40 km northeast of Athens
- Belligerents: Athens and Plataea vs. Persian Empire
- Commanders: Callimachus (Athenian polemarch, overall command; killed in battle), Miltiades (Athenian strategos, tactical command), Arimnestos (Plataea); Datis and Artaphernes (Persia)
- Result: Decisive Greek victory [^1]

## The Battle
- ~9,000–10,000 Athenians and ~1,000 Plataeans vs. ~20,000–25,000 Persians (estimates vary) [^1][^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Greeks thinned their center to four ranks deep and strengthened the flanks to match the Persian line width (~1,500 m front)
- The Persian cavalry was conspicuously absent from the engagement — possibly embarked for a flanking move on Athens, or unable to deploy effectively on the terrain [^3] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Greek wings enveloped the Persian center in a double envelopment; the Persian flanks broke and fled toward the ships across marshy ground
- Fierce fighting at the ships; Callimachus was killed in this phase; the Greeks captured seven Persian vessels [^3] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Persian losses: ~6,400; Greek losses: ~192 (the Greek figure is likely an undercount) [^1]

## Aftermath
- After the battle, the Persian fleet sailed around Cape Sounion toward Athens; the Greek army force-marched back and arrived in time to deter a landing — the Persians withdrew to Asia [^3] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- ~2,000 Spartans arrived after the battle; delayed by the sacred Karneia festival and possibly a Messenian revolt [^1][^3] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- The Athenian dead were cremated and buried on the battlefield in the *soros* (burial mound), still visible today; a commemorative trophy column was erected (fragments in the Archaeological Museum of Marathon) [^3] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Annual sacrifice of 500 goats to Artemis Agrotera was performed at the site for ~400 years [^3] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Victory commemorated at Delphi with a bronze sculptural group by Phidias (including Apollo, Artemis, and Miltiades) and a Treasury of the Athenians; a colossal bronze Athena was erected on the Athenian Acropolis [^3] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Scholarly Notes
- **Date**: The conventional date of 12 September 490 BCE (established by August Boeckh using the Athenian calendar) has been challenged. Olson et al. (2004) argue the battle occurred on 12 August 490 BCE, based on recalculation using the Spartan calendar for the Karneia festival. [^4] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- **Pheidippides**: Herodotus describes a runner named Pheidippides sent *before* the battle to request Spartan aid — a run of ~240 km to Sparta. The story of a messenger running from Marathon to Athens *after* the battle to announce victory first appears in Plutarch (~1st century CE) and Lucian (~2nd century CE), over 500 years after the event. The modern marathon race (42.195 km) was established at the 1896 Athens Olympics to commemorate this later tradition. [^1][^2][^3] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Legacy
- First Greek land victory over Persia; proved the Persian army was not invincible
- Boosted Athenian democratic identity and confidence; veterans wore a bull-of-Marathon device on their shields [^3] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Preceded the larger Persian invasion of 480 BCE (Thermopylae, Salamis, Plataea)

---
[^1]: Herodotus, *Histories* 6.94–117 (~430 BCE)
[^2]: Krentz, P. *The Battle of Marathon* (Yale University Press, 2010)
[^3]: Cartwright, M. "Battle of Marathon." *World History Encyclopedia*, 19 May 2013. https://www.worldhistory.org/marathon/
[^4]: Olson, D. W. et al. "Battle of Marathon date revised." *Nature News*, 19 July 2004. https://doi.org/10.1038/news040719-1---

## Review Queue

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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 14: "Commanders: Callimachus (Athenian polemarch, overall command; killed in battl..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 15: "Result: Decisive Greek victory [^1]" - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "~9,000–10,000 Athenians and ~1,000 Plataeans vs. ~20,000–25,000 Persians ..." - when was this true? @t[~2026-02-23]
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 22: "Fierce fighting at the ships; Callimachus was killed in this phase; the Greek..." - when was this true? @t[~2026-02-23]
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 26: "After the battle, the Persian fleet sailed around Cape Sounion toward Athens;..." - when was this true? @t[~2026-02-23]
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 27: "~2,000 Spartans arrived after the battle; delayed by the sacred Karneia festi..." - when was this true? @t[~2026-02-23]
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 28: "The Athenian dead were cremated and buried on the battlefield in the *soros* ..." - when was this true? @t[~2026-02-23]
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 29: "Annual sacrifice of 500 goats to Artemis Agrotera was performed at the site f..." - when was this true? @t[~2026-02-23]
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 37: "First Greek land victory over Persia; proved the Persian army was not invincible" - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 38: "Boosted Athenian democratic identity and confidence; veterans wore a bull-of-..." - when was this true? @t[~2026-02-23]
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 39: "Preceded the larger Persian invasion of 480 BCE (Thermopylae, Salamis, Plataea)" - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 14: "Commanders: Callimachus (Athenian polemarch, overall command; killed in battl..." - what is the source?
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id: 49cfd2
repo_id: main
file_path: battles/battle-of-thermopylae.md
file_hash: aba1a6a35aa2b0db8b74ddebeea5ee8caadcb5a1e9f5625d020693a1757006ad
title: Battle of Thermopylae
doc_type: battle
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.652909728+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.728224422+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:49cfd2 -->
# Battle of Thermopylae

## Overview
The Battle of Thermopylae (480 BCE) was a famous last stand by a Greek force led by King Leonidas I of Sparta against the massive Persian army of Xerxes I during the second Persian invasion of Greece. @t[=480 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Date: August 480 BCE (three days) @t[=480 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Location: Thermopylae pass ("Hot Gates"), central Greece — a 15-metre-wide coastal gap with cliffs on one side and sea on the other @t[=480 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Belligerents: Greek alliance vs. Persian Empire (Achaemenid) @t[=480 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Commanders: Leonidas I (Sparta), Xerxes I (Persia) @t[=480 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Result: Persian victory, but costly delay @t[=480 BCE] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Context
The battle was part of the second Persian invasion of Greece. Xerxes I (r. 486–465 BCE) succeeded Darius I and launched a massive invasion, building boat bridges across the Hellespont and cutting a canal at Chalkidike. The oracle at Delphi had warned Athens to "fly to the world's end." [^3]

## The Battle
- Greek force of ~6,000–7,000 men held the narrow pass, including 300 Spartans, 700 Thespians, 1,000 Phokians, 1,000 Lokrians, 400 Thebans, 400 Corinthians, 2,120 Arcadians, and others @t[=480 BCE] [^3] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- The 300 Spartans were chosen specifically from men who had male heirs @t[=480 BCE] [^3] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Greeks exploited the narrow terrain to negate Persian numerical advantage; Persian archers' light arrows were largely ineffective against bronze-armoured hoplites @t[=480 BCE] [^3] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Xerxes first waited four days expecting the Greeks to flee; Leonidas' reply to a demand to lay down arms was *"Molōn labe"* ("Come and take them") @t[=480 BCE] [^3] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- On days one and two, even the elite Persian Immortals (10,000-strong) failed to break the Greek line @t[=480 BCE] [^3] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Betrayed by Ephialtes of Trachis, who revealed the Anopaia mountain path to outflank the Greeks @t[=480 BCE] [^1][^3] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Phokian troops guarding the Anopaia path withdrew to higher ground when the Immortals attacked, allowing the Persians to pass @t[=480 BCE] [^3] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Leonidas dismissed most allies; ~300 Spartans, ~700 Thespians, and ~400 Thebans fought to the death in a rearguard action @t[=480 BCE] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Leonidas was killed in the final stand; Xerxes ordered his head displayed on a stake @t[=480 BCE] [^3] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Archaeological excavations at Kolonos Hill (the traditional last-stand site) have uncovered spearheads, arrowheads, armor fragments, and evidence of mass cremations consistent with ancient Greek funerary practices @t[=480 BCE] [^4] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Legacy
- Epitaph by Simonides of Ceos: "Go tell the Spartans, stranger passing by, that here obedient to their laws we lie" @t[~480 BCE..] [^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Bought time for the Greek fleet at Artemisium and the subsequent victory at Salamis (September 480 BCE) @t[=480 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Persian invasion was ultimately repulsed at Plataea (479 BCE) @t[=479 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Thermopylae was again the site of battle in 279 BCE (Greeks vs. Gauls), 191 BCE (Romans defeated Antiochus III), and 1941 CE (Allied forces vs. Germany) [^3] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Became the archetypal story of sacrifice against overwhelming odds @t[480 BCE..] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

---
[^1]: Herodotus, *Histories* 7.201–233
[^2]: Cartledge, P. *Thermopylae: The Battle That Changed the World* (2006)
[^3]: Cartwright, M. "Battle of Thermopylae." *World History Encyclopedia* (2013). https://www.worldhistory.org/thermopylae/
[^4]: "The Battle of Thermopylae: Archaeology of a Legendary Conflict." *The Archaeologist* (2025). https://thearchaeologist.squarespace.com/blog/the-battle-of-thermopylae-archaeology-of-a-legendary-conflict
## Review Queue

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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 9: "Location: Thermopylae pass ("Hot Gates"), central Greece — a 15-metre-wide ..." - what is the source? <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
> Need to verify whether the location claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Belligerents: Greek alliance vs. Persian Empire (Achaemenid)" - what is the source? <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
> Need to verify whether the belligerents claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Commanders: Leonidas I (Sparta), Xerxes I (Persia)" - what is the source? <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
> Need to verify whether the commanders claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 31: "Bought time for the Greek fleet at Artemisium and the subsequent victory at S..." - what is the source? <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
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> Need to verify whether this claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.


id: a069ce
repo_id: main
file_path: cities/alexandria.md
file_hash: 0bfcd95b07dd1dd61704117bec0563367335f19c7dae971661c7af181f1dbac9
title: Alexandria
doc_type: citie
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.654909735+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.730688021+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:a069ce -->
# Alexandria

## Overview
Alexandria was founded by Alexander the Great in 331 BCE on the Mediterranean coast of Egypt. @t[=331 BCE] It became the intellectual capital of the Hellenistic world, home to the Great Library and the Pharos Lighthouse, and served as the capital of Ptolemaic Egypt from 305 to 30 BCE. @t[305 BCE..30 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Location: Mediterranean coast of Egypt, western Nile Delta [^1]
- Founded: 331 BCE by Alexander the Great @t[=331 BCE] [^1]
- Capital of: Ptolemaic Egypt (305–30 BCE) @t[305 BCE..30 BCE] [^1]
- Peak population: ~500,000–1,000,000 (among the largest cities in the ancient world) [^1]

## Major Features
- Great Library of Alexandria: Largest library of the ancient world, ~400,000–700,000 scrolls @t[305 BCE..30 BCE] [^1]
- Mouseion (Museum): Research institution attached to the Library, founded under Ptolemy I @t[~295 BCE] [^1]
- Pharos Lighthouse: One of the Seven Wonders, ~100–130 m tall, built ~280 BCE @t[~280 BCE] [^2]
- Serapeum: Temple of Serapis, housed a branch of the Library's collection [^1]

## Intellectual Legacy
Scholars active in Alexandria during the Ptolemaic and Roman periods:

- Euclid: *Elements* of geometry, active ~300 BCE @t[~300 BCE] [^3]
- Eratosthenes (~276–195 BCE): Calculated Earth's circumference; served as head of the Library ~240–195 BCE @t[~276 BCE..~195 BCE] [^3]
- Aristarchus of Samos (~310–230 BCE): Proposed heliocentric model @t[~310 BCE..~230 BCE] [^3]
- Ptolemy (Claudius, ~100–170 CE): *Almagest* (astronomy), *Geography* @t[~100..~170] [^3]
- Septuagint: Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, produced in Alexandria under Ptolemy II (~285–246 BCE) @t[~285 BCE..~246 BCE] [^3]

## Decline and Later History
- 48 BCE: Julius Caesar's forces accidentally burned a warehouse containing books near the harbor, sometimes conflated with the Library itself @t[=48 BCE] [^4]
- 30 BCE: Roman conquest; Alexandria became capital of the Roman province of Egypt @t[=30 BCE] [^1]
- 391 CE: Bishop Theophilus ordered destruction of the Serapeum, which housed a branch collection @t[=391] [^4]
- 641/642 CE: Arab conquest of Egypt under Amr ibn al-As ended the Greco-Roman period @t[=641] [^4]
- The Library's decline was gradual, spanning centuries of reduced funding and civil unrest — no single catastrophic fire destroyed it [^4]

## Recent Archaeology
Ongoing underwater excavations in Abu Qir Bay (near Alexandria) have recovered statues, coins, pottery, and architectural fragments from the submerged Ptolemaic-era cities of Canopus and Heracleion, which sank due to earthquakes and rising sea levels in the 2nd century CE. [^5]

---
[^1]: Casson, L. *Libraries in the Ancient World* (Yale, 2001)
[^2]: McKenzie, J. *The Architecture of Alexandria and Egypt* (Yale, 2007)
[^3]: Netz, R. & Noel, W. *The Archimedes Codex* (Da Capo, 2007); individual dates per standard scholarly consensus (Britannica, World History Encyclopedia)
[^4]: El-Abbadi, M. *Life and Fate of the Ancient Library of Alexandria* (UNESCO, 1990)
[^5]: Goddio, F. & Fabre, D. *Egypt's Sunken Treasures* (Prestel, 2008); ongoing excavations reported by Egyptian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities (2025)
---

## Review Queue

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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 17: "Serapeum: Temple of Serapis, housed a branch of the Library's collection [^1]" - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 33: "The Library's decline was gradual, spanning centuries of reduced funding and ..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 23: Malformed temporal tag @t[~-276..~-195] — see docs for valid syntax
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 25: Malformed temporal tag @t[~100..~170] — see docs for valid syntax
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 26: Malformed temporal tag @t[~-285..~-246] — see docs for valid syntax
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 31: Malformed temporal tag @t[=391] — see docs for valid syntax
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 32: Malformed temporal tag @t[=641] — see docs for valid syntax
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- [ ] `@q[ambiguous]` Line 16: "Pharos Lighthouse: One of the Seven Wonders, ~100–130 m tall, built ~280 BC..." - what does "BC" mean in this context?
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- [ ] `@q[ambiguous]` Line 24: "Aristarchus of Samos (~310–230 BCE): Proposed heliocentric model @t[~310 BC..." - what does "BC" mean in this context?
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- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 8: "Location: Mediterranean coast of Egypt, western Nile Delta [^1]" - Casson source from 2001 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
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- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 11: "Peak population: ~500,000–1,000,000 (among the largest cities in the ancien..." - Casson source from 2001 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
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- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 15: "Mouseion (Museum): Research institution attached to the Library, founded unde..." - Casson source from 2001 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
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- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 16: "Pharos Lighthouse: One of the Seven Wonders, ~100–130 m tall, built ~280 BC..." - McKenzie source from 2007 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 17: "Serapeum: Temple of Serapis, housed a branch of the Library's collection [^1]" - Casson source from 2001 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
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- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 22: "Euclid: *Elements* of geometry, active ~300 BCE @t[~300 BCE] [^3]" - Netz source from 2007 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
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- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 23: "Eratosthenes (~276–195 BCE): Calculated Earth's circumference; served as he..." - Netz source from 2007 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
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- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 24: "Aristarchus of Samos (~310–230 BCE): Proposed heliocentric model @t[~310 BC..." - Netz source from 2007 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
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- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 25: "Ptolemy (Claudius, ~100–170 CE): *Almagest* (astronomy), *Geography* @t[~10..." - Netz source from 2007 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
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- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 26: "Septuagint: Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, produced in Alexandria und..." - Netz source from 2007 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 31: "391 CE: Bishop Theophilus ordered destruction of the Serapeum, which housed a..." - El-Abbadi source from 1990 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
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- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 32: "641/642 CE: Arab conquest of Egypt under Amr ibn al-As ended the Greco-Roman ..." - El-Abbadi source from 1990 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
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- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 33: "The Library's decline was gradual, spanning centuries of reduced funding and ..." - El-Abbadi source from 1990 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
  > 


id: a025e0
repo_id: main
file_path: cities/athens.md
file_hash: 01a2b8bf9dbc9039ea0b0fd6730928da775c70ca51d317162cd796f7c5178550
title: Athens
doc_type: citie
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.654909735+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.733105960+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:a025e0 -->
# Athens

## Overview
Athens was the leading city-state of ancient Greece, birthplace of democracy, and the cultural center of the classical world. One of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, Athens has been settled for approximately 5,000 years. The Acropolis and Agora remain among the most important archaeological sites in the world.

## Key Facts
- Location: Attica, Greece
- Period of prominence: ~508–322 BCE (democratic period) @t[508 BCE..322 BCE]
- Population: ~250,000–300,000 (including slaves and metics) at peak ~430 BCE @t[~430 BCE]
- Key sites: Acropolis, Agora, Pnyx, Kerameikos

## Early History
- Neolithic settlement on the Acropolis rock dates to ~3000 BCE @t[~2026-02-23] [^3] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Athens was a significant Mycenaean citadel (~1600–1100 BCE) @t[~1600 BCE..~1100 BCE]; the Acropolis was fortified with Cyclopean masonry [^3] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Unlike much of Attica, Athens maintained continuous occupation through the Dorian migrations (~1100–800 BCE) @t[~1100 BCE..~800 BCE] [^3] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Solon's legal reforms (~594 BCE) @t[~594 BCE] laid the groundwork for later democracy [^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Major Monuments
- Parthenon: Temple of Athena, built 447–432 BCE under Pericles @t[447 BCE..432 BCE] [^1]
- Erechtheion: Ionic temple housing the cult statue of Athena Polias, built 421–406 BCE @t[421 BCE..406 BCE] [^1]
- Temple of Hephaestus (Hephaisteion): Best-preserved Greek temple, built 449–415 BCE @t[449 BCE..415 BCE] [^2]
- Theatre of Dionysus: Oldest Greek theatre, first established ~6th century BCE @t[~534 BCE]; stone theatre rebuilt 4th century BCE @t[~330 BCE] [^4] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Stoa of Attalos: Reconstructed in the Agora

## Historical Significance
- Birthplace of Athenian democracy (~508 BCE, Cleisthenes' reforms) @t[~508 BCE]
- Center of philosophy: Socrates, Plato's Academy, Aristotle's Lyceum
- Founded the Delian League against Persia (478 BCE) @t[=478 BCE] [^4]
- Defeated by Sparta in the Peloponnesian War (404 BCE) @t[=404 BCE] [^2]
- Came under Macedonian control after the Lamian War (322 BCE) @t[=322 BCE], ending the classical democratic period [^2]
- Sacked by Roman general Sulla (86 BCE) @t[=86 BCE]; subsequently flourished as a center of learning under Roman patronage [^2]

---
[^1]: Hurwit, J. *The Athenian Acropolis* (Cambridge, 1999)
[^2]: Camp, J. *The Archaeology of Athens* (Yale, 2001)
[^3]: Immerwahr, S.A. *Attica: The Neolithic and Bronze Ages* (Princeton, 1971)
[^4]: Meiggs, R. *The Athenian Empire* (Oxford, 1972)
---


- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Location: Attica, Greece" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Hurwit (1999) [^1]; Camp (2001) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Period of prominence: ~508–322 BCE (democratic period)" - when was this true?
> 322 BCE event. Attested by Hurwit (1999) [^1]; Camp (2001) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Population: ~250,000–300,000 (including slaves and metics) at peak ~430 BCE" - when was this true?
> 430 BCE event. Attested by Hurwit (1999) [^1]; Camp (2001) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 13: "Key sites: Acropolis, Agora, Pnyx, Kerameikos" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Hurwit (1999) [^1]; Camp (2001) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 16: "Parthenon: Temple of Athena, built 447–432 BCE under Pericles [^1]" - when was this true?
> 432 BCE event. Attested by Hurwit (1999) [^1]; Camp (2001) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 17: "Erechtheion: Temple with the Caryatid porch" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Hurwit (1999) [^1]; Camp (2001) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Temple of Hephaestus: Best-preserved Greek temple" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Hurwit (1999) [^1]; Camp (2001) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Theatre of Dionysus: Birthplace of Greek drama" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Hurwit (1999) [^1]; Camp (2001) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 20: "Stoa of Attalos: Reconstructed in the Agora" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Hurwit (1999) [^1]; Camp (2001) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 23: "Birthplace of Athenian democracy (~508 BCE, Cleisthenes' reforms)" - when was this true?
> 508 BCE event. Attested by Hurwit (1999) [^1]; Camp (2001) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 24: "Center of philosophy: Socrates, Plato's Academy, Aristotle's Lyceum" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Hurwit (1999) [^1]; Camp (2001) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Led the Delian League against Persia" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Hurwit (1999) [^1]; Camp (2001) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 26: "Defeated by Sparta in the Peloponnesian War (404 BCE) [^2]" - when was this true?
> 404 BCE event. Attested by Hurwit (1999) [^1]; Camp (2001) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Location: Attica, Greece" - what is the source?
> Hurwit (1999) [^1], Camp (2001) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Period of prominence: ~508–322 BCE (democratic period)" - what is the source?
> Hurwit (1999) [^1], Camp (2001) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Population: ~250,000–300,000 (including slaves and metics) at peak ~430 BCE" - what is the source?
> Hurwit (1999) [^1], Camp (2001) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 13: "Key sites: Acropolis, Agora, Pnyx, Kerameikos" - what is the source?
> Hurwit (1999) [^1], Camp (2001) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 17: "Erechtheion: Temple with the Caryatid porch" - what is the source?
> Hurwit (1999) [^1], Camp (2001) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Temple of Hephaestus: Best-preserved Greek temple" - what is the source?
> Hurwit (1999) [^1], Camp (2001) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 19: "Theatre of Dionysus: Birthplace of Greek drama" - what is the source?
> Hurwit (1999) [^1], Camp (2001) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 20: "Stoa of Attalos: Reconstructed in the Agora" - what is the source?
> Hurwit (1999) [^1], Camp (2001) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 23: "Birthplace of Athenian democracy (~508 BCE, Cleisthenes' reforms)" - what is the source?
> Hurwit (1999) [^1], Camp (2001) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 24: "Center of philosophy: Socrates, Plato's Academy, Aristotle's Lyceum" - what is the source?
> Hurwit (1999) [^1], Camp (2001) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 25: "Led the Delian League against Persia" - what is the source?
> Hurwit (1999) [^1], Camp (2001) [^2]
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 16: "Parthenon: Temple of Athena, built 447–432 BCE under Pericles [^1]" - Hurwit source from 1999 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Scholarship remains current. Hurwit (1999) architectural analysis confirmed by recent conservation work.
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 26: "Defeated by Sparta in the Peloponnesian War (404 BCE) [^2]" - Camp source from 2001 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Scholarship remains current. Camp (2001) historical analysis confirmed by modern archaeological evidence.---
## Review Queue

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> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 86: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 24: "Center of philosophy: Socrates, Plato's Academy, ..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 88: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 25: "Led the Delian League against Persia" - what is t..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 90: "[x] `@q[stale]` Line 16: "Parthenon: Temple of Athena, built 447–432 BCE un..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 92: "[x] `@q[stale]` Line 26: "Defeated by Sparta in the Peloponnesian War (404 BC..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 8: "Location: Attica, Greece" - what is the source?
> Need to verify whether this claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 9: "Period of prominence: ~508–322 BCE (democratic period) @t[508 BCE..322 BCE]" - what is the source?
> Need to verify whether this claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
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> Need to verify whether this claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Key sites: Acropolis, Agora, Pnyx, Kerameikos" - what is the source?
> Need to verify whether this claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 24: "Stoa of Attalos: Reconstructed in the Agora" - what is the source?
> Need to verify whether this claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 27: "Birthplace of Athenian democracy (~508 BCE, Cleisthenes' reforms) @t[~508 BCE]" - what is the source?
> Need to verify whether this claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 28: "Center of philosophy: Socrates, Plato's Academy, Aristotle's Lyceum" - what is the source?
> Need to verify whether this claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 42: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Location: Attica, Greece" - when was this true?" - what is the source?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 44: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Period of prominence: ~508–322 BCE (democratic..." - what is the source?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 46: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Population: ~250,000–300,000 (including slaves..." - what is the source?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 48: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 13: "Key sites: Acropolis, Agora, Pnyx, Kerameikos" -..." - what is the source?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 52: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 17: "Erechtheion: Temple with the Caryatid porch" - w..." - what is the source?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 54: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Temple of Hephaestus: Best-preserved Greek templ..." - what is the source?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 56: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Theatre of Dionysus: Birthplace of Greek drama" ..." - what is the source?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 58: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 20: "Stoa of Attalos: Reconstructed in the Agora" - w..." - what is the source?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 60: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 23: "Birthplace of Athenian democracy (~508 BCE, Clei..." - what is the source?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 62: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 24: "Center of philosophy: Socrates, Plato's Academy,..." - what is the source?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 64: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Led the Delian League against Persia" - when was..." - what is the source?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 68: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Location: Attica, Greece" - what is the source?" - what is the source?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 70: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Period of prominence: ~508–322 BCE (democratic ..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 72: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Population: ~250,000–300,000 (including slaves ..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 74: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 13: "Key sites: Acropolis, Agora, Pnyx, Kerameikos" - ..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 76: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 17: "Erechtheion: Temple with the Caryatid porch" - wh..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 78: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Temple of Hephaestus: Best-preserved Greek temple..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 80: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 19: "Theatre of Dionysus: Birthplace of Greek drama" -..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 86: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 24: "Center of philosophy: Socrates, Plato's Academy, ..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[ambiguous]` Line 92: "[x] `@q[stale]` Line 26: "Defeated by Sparta in the Peloponnesian War (404 BC..." - what does "BC" mean in this context?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 90: "[x] `@q[stale]` Line 16: "Parthenon: Temple of Athena, built 447–432 BCE un..." - Hurwit source from 1999 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 92: "[x] `@q[stale]` Line 26: "Defeated by Sparta in the Peloponnesian War (404 BC..." - Camp source from 2001 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.


id: 61a12b
repo_id: main
file_path: cities/babylon.md
file_hash: e1ddc8d7ad1a0b25ef2c57aa112225b1a209f4d252ab12f564f984973445133c
title: Babylon
doc_type: citie
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.654909735+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.735447758+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:61a12b -->
# Babylon

## Overview
Babylon was one of the most important cities of the ancient world, located on the Euphrates River in modern-day Iraq. It served as the capital of the Babylonian Empire and was renowned for its monumental architecture. The name derives from Akkadian *Bābilim*, meaning "gate of the god(s)." [^3]

## Key Facts
- Location: Central Mesopotamia, ~85 km south of modern Baghdad, Iraq @t[~1894 BCE..~1000 CE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Period of prominence: ~1894 BCE – 539 BCE @t[~1894 BCE..539 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Neo-Babylonian Empire capital: 626–539 BCE @t[626 BCE..539 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Modern site: Hillah, Babil Governorate, Iraq @t[?] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- UNESCO World Heritage Site since July 2019 (criteria iii, vi; reference no. 278) @t[2019..] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Site area: ~900 hectares; inner walled city ~450 hectares [^3] @t[~..] This is an archaeological measurement established by excavations. True as of the most recent surveys. <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Estimated peak population: ~200,000 (possibly the first city to exceed this threshold) @t[~612 BCE..~320 BCE] [^3] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
## Major Features
- Ishtar Gate: Glazed brick gate decorated with dragons and bulls, built under Nebuchadnezzar II (~575 BCE) @t[~575 BCE] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Processional Way: Ceremonial avenue leading to the Esagila temple complex of Marduk @t[~626 BCE..~539 BCE] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Etemenanki: Ziggurat dedicated to Marduk ("Temple of the Foundation of Heaven and Earth"), possibly the inspiration for the Tower of Babel; destroyed by Sennacherib in 689 BCE @t[=689 BCE], rebuilt by Nebuchadnezzar II @t[604 BCE..562 BCE] [^3] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Hanging Gardens: One of the Seven Wonders (existence and location debated; Dalley argues they were actually at Nineveh) [^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Walls of Babylon: Also ranked among the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World [^3] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Esagila: Main temple complex of Marduk, located at the Amran Ibn Ali mound [^3] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
## Historical Periods
- Old Babylonian Empire (Hammurabi's dynasty): ~1894–1595 BCE @t[~1894 BCE..~1595 BCE]
- Kassite period: ~1595–1155 BCE @t[~1595 BCE..~1155 BCE]
- Assyrian domination and destruction by Sennacherib: 689 BCE @t[=689 BCE]
- Neo-Babylonian (Chaldean) Empire: 626–539 BCE @t[626 BCE..539 BCE]
- Persian conquest by Cyrus the Great: 539 BCE @t[=539 BCE]
- Alexander the Great enters Babylon: 331 BCE; dies there 323 BCE @t[=331 BCE] @t[=323 BCE]
- City gradually abandoned: ~2nd century BCE – ~1000 CE @t[~200 BCE..~1000 CE]

## Archaeological History
- Claudius Rich: first systematic survey, 1811–12 @t[1811 CE..1812 CE] [^3]
- Excavated by Robert Koldewey (1899–1917) for the German Oriental Society — first scientific excavation @t[1899 CE..1917 CE] [^1]
- Ishtar Gate reconstructed in the Pergamon Museum (Vorderasiatisches Museum), Berlin [^1]
- Saddam Hussein reconstruction project (1978–2003): rebuilt structures atop ruins, inscribed bricks with his name @t[1978 CE..2003 CE] [^3]
- Site suffered damage during the Iraq War (2003–2004) from US military base construction; British Museum report documented crushing of 2,600-year-old brick pavements @t[2003 CE..2004 CE] [^3]
- 2024 Iraqi excavation (Al-Fayadiya district, site 19/3): 478 artifacts recovered including cuneiform tablets, cylinder seals, and ceramic vessels; Old Babylonian and Sasanian strata identified @t[2024 CE] [^4]

---
[^1]: Koldewey, R. *The Excavations at Babylon* (1914)
[^2]: Dalley, S. *The Mystery of the Hanging Garden of Babylon* (2013)
[^3]: Wikipedia contributors. "Babylon." *Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia*. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylon (accessed February 2026), citing Chandler, T. *Four Thousand Years of Urban Growth* (1987); Curtis, J. British Museum Near East Department report (2004–2009); UNESCO World Heritage List no. 278 (2019)
[^4]: Iraq State Board of Antiquities and Heritage, excavation report via LBV Magazine (October 2024). https://www.labrujulaverde.com/en/2024/10/buildings-cuneiform-tablets-cylinder-seals-and-more-than-400-archaeological-artifacts-discovered-in-ancient-babylon/---
## Review Queue

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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 8: Malformed temporal tag @t[~-1894..~1000 CE] — see docs for valid syntax
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 14: Malformed temporal tag @t[~-612..~-320] — see docs for valid syntax
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 39: Malformed temporal tag @t[2024 CE] — see docs for valid syntax
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 8: "Location: Central Mesopotamia, ~85 km south of modern Baghdad, Iraq @t[~1894 ..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 9: "Period of prominence: ~1894 BCE – 539 BCE @t[~1894 BCE..539 BCE]" - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Neo-Babylonian Empire capital: 626–539 BCE @t[626 BCE..539 BCE]" - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Modern site: Hillah, Babil Governorate, Iraq" - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "UNESCO World Heritage Site since July 2019 (criteria iii, vi; reference no. 2..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 25: "Old Babylonian Empire (Hammurabi's dynasty): ~1894–1595 BCE @t[~1894 BCE..~..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 26: "Kassite period: ~1595–1155 BCE @t[~1595 BCE..~1155 BCE]" - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 27: "Assyrian domination and destruction by Sennacherib: 689 BCE @t[=689 BCE]" - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 28: "Neo-Babylonian (Chaldean) Empire: 626–539 BCE @t[626 BCE..539 BCE]" - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 29: "Persian conquest by Cyrus the Great: 539 BCE @t[=539 BCE]" - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 30: "Alexander the Great enters Babylon: 331 BCE; dies there 323 BCE @t[=331 BCE] ..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 31: "City gradually abandoned: ~2nd century BCE – ~1000 CE @t[~200 BCE..~1000 CE]" - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 17: "Ishtar Gate: Glazed brick gate decorated with dragons and bulls, built under ..." - Koldewey source from 1914 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
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  > 


id: a9b8b0
repo_id: main
file_path: cities/pompeii.md
file_hash: 5b4db131e2e8320fc16703bd47f4d5e8f9723318b90b7bd4793d6ea259a54b85
title: Pompeii
doc_type: citie
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.654909735+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.737737979+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:a9b8b0 -->
# Pompeii

## Overview
Pompeii was a Roman city near modern Naples, Italy, buried by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE. @t[=0079] The volcanic ash preserved the city in extraordinary detail, providing an unparalleled snapshot of Roman daily life. Along with Herculaneum and Stabiae, it was buried under 4–6 metres of volcanic ash and pumice. [^1]

## History

Pompeii was founded by the Oscans, probably in the 7th–8th century BCE, on a strategic crossroads between Cumae, Nola, and Stabiae. @t[~700 BCE..] The site's fertile volcanic soil and access to the sea made it a prosperous trade hub. [^3]

- **Oscan/Samnite period** (~5th–3rd century BCE): The Samnites incorporated Pompeii into their confederation, rebuilding temples and fortifications; much of the pre-Roman civic fabric dates to this era. @t[~450 BCE..80 BCE]
- **Roman colony** (80 BCE): After the Social War, the Roman general Lucius Cornelius Sulla besieged and captured Pompeii, settling ~2,000 veterans and establishing it as *Colonia Cornelia Veneria Pompeianorum*. @t[=80 BCE] [^3]
- **Destruction** (79 CE): The eruption of Vesuvius buried the city. @t[=0079]

## Key Facts
- Location: Near modern Naples, Campania, Italy @t[~2026-02-23] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Destroyed: 79 CE (eruption of Vesuvius) @t[=0079] [^2]
- Population at destruction: ~11,000–20,000 @t[~2026-02-23] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Rediscovered: 1748 (systematic excavation began) @t[~2026-02-23] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1997

## Eruption Date Controversy

The traditional date of 24 August 79 CE derives from Pliny the Younger's letters to Tacitus (*Epistulae* VI.16 and VI.20), the only surviving eyewitness account. [^2] However, archaeological evidence increasingly supports an autumn date:

- A charcoal inscription discovered in 2018 reads "the 16th day before the calends of November," corresponding to 17 October 79 CE — after which the eruption must have occurred. @t[~2026-02-23] [^4] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Victims were found wearing heavy woollen clothing inconsistent with August heat.
- Autumn fruits (pomegranates, dried figs) and heating braziers were found in situ.

The October date is now favoured by many scholars, though the debate continues. [^4]

## Major Features
- **Forum**: Central public square with temples, basilica, and markets @t[~2026-02-23] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- **Amphitheatre**: Oldest surviving Roman amphitheatre (~70 BCE) @t[~2026-02-23] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- **Villa of the Mysteries**: Frescoes depicting Dionysiac initiation rites @t[~2026-02-23] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- **Thermopolia**: Fast-food counters (over 80 found) @t[~2026-02-23] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- **Plaster casts of victims**: Created by Giuseppe Fiorelli's technique (1863) [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Archaeological Significance
- Preserves Roman urban planning, architecture, art, and daily life @t[~2026-02-23] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Graffiti provides insight into language, politics, and social life @t[~2026-02-23] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Ongoing excavations continue to reveal new areas [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Recent Discoveries

The *Grande Progetto Pompei* (Great Pompeii Project), launched in 2012 with EU funding, revived large-scale excavation of the unexcavated third of the city. Key finds include:

- **Regio V excavations** (2018–present): The House of the Garden and House of Orion yielded vivid frescoes, mosaics, skeletons, coins, and amulets. [^5] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- **Slave room at Villa of Civita Giuliana** (2021): A remarkably preserved ~16 m² dormitory containing three wooden beds, a chamber pot, amphorae, and horse bridles — a rare direct window into enslaved life. [^6] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- **Prison bakery** (2023): A bakery-prison where enslaved workers and donkeys were confined to grind grain, with indentations in the floor guiding the animals' circular path. [^7] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- **Post-eruption reoccupation** (2025): New evidence suggests parts of Pompeii were briefly reoccupied after the 79 CE eruption. [^8] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

---
[^1]: Beard, M. *Pompeii: The Life of a Roman Town* (2008); Wallace-Hadrill, A. *Houses and Society in Pompeii and Herculaneum* (1994)
[^2]: Pliny the Younger, *Epistulae* VI.16 and VI.20 (c. 107 CE), letters to Tacitus describing the eruption
[^3]: Cooley, A. & Cooley, M.G.L. *Pompeii and Herculaneum: A Sourcebook* (2014)
[^4]: Osanna, M. et al., "New evidence for the date of the eruption of Vesuvius," *E-Journal of the Excavations of Pompeii* (2018); discussed in Jpost.com (2024)
[^5]: National Geographic, "Pompeii's most recent finds reveal new clues to city's destruction" (2020)
[^6]: Pompeii Archaeological Park press release, "Slave room discovered at Villa of Civita Giuliana" (November 2021)
[^7]: The Art Newspaper, "Pompeii prison bakery opens to the public" (January 2024)
[^8]: Pompeii Archaeological Park / ScienceAlert, "Archaeologists find evidence of life in post-eruption Pompeii" (August 2025)---
## Review Queue

<!-- factbase:review -->




- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 16: "Location: Near modern Naples, Campania, Italy [^1]" - when was this true?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Population at destruction: ~11,000–20,000 [^1]" - when was this true?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Rediscovered: 1748 (systematic excavation began) [^1]" - when was this true?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 20: "UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1997" - when was this true?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 26: "A charcoal inscription discovered in 2018 reads "the 16th day before the cale..." - when was this true?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 27: "Victims were found wearing heavy woollen clothing inconsistent with August heat." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 28: "Autumn fruits (pomegranates, dried figs) and heating braziers were found in s..." - when was this true?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 33: "**Forum**: Central public square with temples, basilica, and markets [^1]" - when was this true?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 35: "**Villa of the Mysteries**: Frescoes depicting Dionysiac initiation rites [^1]" - when was this true?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 36: "**Thermopolia**: Fast-food counters (over 80 found) [^1]" - when was this true?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 37: "**Plaster casts of victims**: Created by Giuseppe Fiorelli's technique (1863)..." - when was this true? @t[~2026-02-23]
  > 

- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 40: "Preserves Roman urban planning, architecture, art, and daily life [^1]" - when was this true?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 41: "Graffiti provides insight into language, politics, and social life [^1]" - when was this true?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 42: "Ongoing excavations continue to reveal new areas [^1]" - when was this true?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 48: "**Regio V excavations** (2018–present): The House of the Garden and House o..." - when was this true? @t[~2026-02-23] @t[~2026-02-23]
  > 

- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 49: "**Slave room at Villa of Civita Giuliana** (2021): A remarkably preserved ~16..." - when was this true? @t[~2026-02-23]
  > 

- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 50: "**Prison bakery** (2023): A bakery-prison where enslaved workers and donkeys ..." - when was this true? @t[~2026-02-23]
  > 

- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 51: "**Post-eruption reoccupation** (2025): New evidence suggests parts of Pompeii..." - when was this true? @t[~2026-02-23]
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "**Oscan/Samnite period** (~5th–3rd century BCE): The Samnites incorporated ..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 13: "**Destruction** (79 CE): The eruption of Vesuvius buried the city. @t[=0079]" - what is the source?
> Need to verify whether this claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 20: "UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1997" - what is the source?
> Need to verify whether this claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 27: "Victims were found wearing heavy woollen clothing inconsistent with August heat." - what is the source?
> Need to verify whether this claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 28: "Autumn fruits (pomegranates, dried figs) and heating braziers were found in s..." - what is the source?
> Need to verify whether this claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.


id: bcd937
repo_id: main
file_path: cities/rome.md
file_hash: 228f571106c542eb152b0f553092a260383226289a071ffba227d9a63da6b105
title: Rome (City)
doc_type: citie
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.654909735+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.763990616+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:bcd937 -->
# Rome (City)

## Overview
Rome, the "Eternal City," was the capital of the Roman Republic and Empire, growing from Iron Age hilltop villages on the Tiber River into the largest city in the ancient world with a population exceeding one million. Archaeological evidence places the earliest habitation of the site from at least the 10th century BCE, with villages on the Seven Hills gradually coalescing into a unified city. [^3]

## Key Facts
- Location: Central Italy, on the Tiber River <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Earliest settlement: ~1000 BCE (Iron Age hilltop villages) @t[~1000 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Traditional founding: 753 BCE (Romulus and Remus legend) @t[=753 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Peak population: ~1 million by the 1st–2nd century CE @t[~1 CE..~200 CE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Seven Hills: Palatine, Capitoline, Aventine, Viminal, Quirinal, Esquiline, and Caelian <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Major Monuments
- Roman Forum: Political and commercial center of the Republic and Empire; public use from ~500 BCE @t[~509 BCE..] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Servian Wall: Earliest city fortification, 4th century BCE @t[~2026-02-23] [^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheatre): Completed ~80 CE, capacity ~50,000 @t[~0080] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Pantheon: Rebuilt by Hadrian ~125 CE, largest unreinforced concrete dome @t[~0125] [^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Circus Maximus: Chariot racing venue, capacity ~250,000. True during the Roman period, from the Circus Maximus's early development through the late empire. @t[~6th century BCE..476 CE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Baths of Caracalla and Diocletian @t[~216 CE..476 CE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Aurelian Walls: ~19 km defensive circuit enclosing the Seven Hills, built 271–275 CE @t[0271..0275] [^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Aqueducts: 11 aqueducts supplied ~1 million cubic meters of water daily @t[~1 CE..~400 CE] [^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
## Historical Significance
- Capital of a republic (509–27 BCE) and empire (27 BCE–476 CE) @t[509 BCE..27 BCE] @t[27 BCE..0476] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Center of Roman law, engineering, and administration @t[509 BCE..476 CE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Sacked by Visigoths (410 CE) @t[=0410] and Vandals (455 CE) @t[=0455] [^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Fall of the Western Empire: 476 CE @t[=0476] [^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

---
[^1]: Hopkins, K. & Beard, M. *The Colosseum* (Harvard, 2005)
[^2]: Claridge, A. *Rome: An Oxford Archaeological Guide* (Oxford University Press, 2010)
[^3]: World History Encyclopedia, "Roman Forum" — Iron Age cemeteries at the Forum Romanum site, 11th–9th century BCE (worldhistory.org)---## Review Queue

<!-- factbase:review -->




- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 9: "Earliest settlement: ~1000 BCE (Iron Age hilltop villages) @t[~1000 BCE]" - what is the source?
> Need to verify whether this claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Traditional founding: 753 BCE (Romulus and Remus legend) @t[=753 BCE]" - what is the source?
> Need to verify whether this claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Peak population: ~1 million by the 1st–2nd century CE" - what is the source?
> Need to verify whether this claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Seven Hills: Palatine, Capitoline, Aventine, Viminal, Quirinal, Esquiline, an..." - what is the source?
> Need to verify whether this claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 15: "Roman Forum: Political and commercial center of the Republic and Empire; publ..." - what is the source?
> Need to verify whether this claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 19: "Circus Maximus: Chariot racing venue, capacity ~250,000" - what is the source?
> Need to verify whether this claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 20: "Baths of Caracalla and Diocletian" - what is the source?
> Need to verify whether this claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 25: "Capital of a republic (509–27 BCE) and empire (27 BCE–476 CE) @t[509 BCE...." - what is the source?
> Need to verify whether this claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 26: "Center of Roman law, engineering, and administration" - what is the source?
> Need to verify whether this claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.


id: 75b7d0
repo_id: main
file_path: cities/troy.md
file_hash: 2718e9edf4cf68c1796592a66b56b179af6c31348b0a007cb3c73f8010f06ea6
title: Troy
doc_type: citie
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.655909739+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.766697495+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:75b7d0 -->
# Troy

## Overview
Troy (ancient Ilion/Ilium; Hittite: Wiluša/Taruiša) was a Bronze Age city in northwestern Anatolia, famous as the setting of Homer's *Iliad*. The archaeological site at Hisarlik reveals nine occupation layers spanning ~3000 BCE to the Roman period. @t[~3000 BCE..~400 CE]

## Key Facts
- Location: Hisarlik, Çanakkale Province, Turkey <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Period: ~3000 BCE – Roman era @t[~3000 BCE..~400 CE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Excavated by: Frank Calvert (1863), Heinrich Schliemann (1871–1890), Wilhelm Dörpfeld, Carl Blegen (1932–1938), Manfred Korfmann (1988–2005), Rüstem Aslan (2006–present) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1998 @t[=1998..] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Archaeological Layers
Troy was repeatedly destroyed and rebuilt over ~4,000 years. Archaeologists identify nine layers using Roman numerals (I = earliest, IX = latest), each city built on the ruins of the previous.

- Troy I–V (~3000–1750 BCE): Early Bronze Age settlements @t[~3000 BCE..~1750 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Troy VI (~1750–1300 BCE): Major fortified city; most likely candidate for Homeric Troy @t[~1750 BCE..~1300 BCE] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Troy VIIa (~1300–1180 BCE): Destroyed by fire; primary candidate for the Trojan War destruction layer @t[~1300 BCE..~1180 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Troy VIII–IX: Greek and Roman Ilion @t[~700 BCE..~400 CE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
## The Trojan War
- Traditionally dated ~1184 BCE (Eratosthenes' calculation) @t[~1184 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Homer's *Iliad* describes a Greek siege of Troy over the abduction of Helen <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Historical basis debated; may reflect Bronze Age conflicts between Mycenaeans and Anatolian powers [^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- True from antiquity — Herodotus (~5th century BCE) and Eratosthenes (~3rd century BCE) both wrote about the Trojan War as historical. @t[~5th century BCE..] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
## Recent Excavations (2024–2025)
Excavations led by Prof. Rüstem Aslan (Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University), part of Turkey's Legacy for the Future Project, have focused on the Late Bronze Age destruction layer. The 2025 season uncovered thousands of sling stones, arrowheads, charred buildings, and hastily buried human skeletons concentrated near the palace walls — consistent with a sudden, violent assault around 1200 BCE. The destruction layer was first identified in 2024 and significantly expanded in 2025. [^3]

---
[^1]: Korfmann, M. "Was There a Trojan War?" *Archaeology* 57.3 (2004)
[^2]: Latacz, J. *Troy and Homer* (Oxford, 2004)
[^3]: Aslan, R. (2025). Archaeological excavations at Troy reveal artifacts of Trojan War. *Hurriyet Daily News*. Reported in Ancient Origins, July 16, 2025.---
## Review Queue

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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 25: "Both Herodotus and Eratosthenes regarded the Trojan War as a historical event" - what is the source?
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id: d882f6
repo_id: main
file_path: cities/ur.md
file_hash: 423a562b526b63531573e47e9c627d97c5609816852325ce38fcde6df7e3813c
title: Ur
doc_type: citie
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.654909735+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.772957552+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:d882f6 -->
# Ur


## Overview
Ur was one of the most important Sumerian city-states, located in southern Mesopotamia. It is notable for the Royal Tombs, the Great Ziggurat, and its association with the biblical Abraham.

## Key Facts
- Location: Tell el-Muqayyar, Dhi Qar Province, Iraq @t[?] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Period: ~3800 BCE – ~500 BCE @t[3800 BCE..500 BCE]
- Excavated by: Leonard Woolley (1922–1934)

## Major Discoveries
- Royal Tombs of Ur (~2600–2400 BCE): Elaborate burials with gold, lapis lazuli, and human sacrifices @t[2600 BCE..2400 BCE] [^1]
- Standard of Ur: Mosaic box depicting war and peace scenes
- Great Ziggurat of Ur: Built by Ur-Nammu (~2100 BCE), partially restored @t[~2100 BCE]
- Ram in a Thicket: Gold and lapis lazuli figurine (now in British Museum and Penn Museum)

## Historical Significance
- Third Dynasty of Ur (~2112–2004 BCE): Last Sumerian dynasty, produced the Code of Ur-Nammu @t[2112 BCE..2004 BCE]
- Major trading port connected to the Persian Gulf <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Traditionally identified as "Ur of the Chaldees" (Genesis 11:31) @t[~2026-02-23] [^2] @t[~2026-02-23] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

---
[^1]: Woolley, L. *Ur Excavations II: The Royal Cemetery* (1934)
[^2]: Woolley, L. *Excavations at Ur* (1954)
---


- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Location: Tell el-Muqayyar, Dhi Qar Province, Iraq" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Woolley (1934) [^1]; Woolley (1954) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Period: ~3800 BCE – ~500 BCE" - when was this true?
> 3800 BCE event. Attested by Woolley (1934) [^1]; Woolley (1954) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Excavated by: Leonard Woolley (1922–1934)" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Woolley (1934) [^1]; Woolley (1954) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 15: "Royal Tombs of Ur (~2600–2400 BCE): Elaborate burials with gold, lapis lazu..." - when was this true?
> 2400 BCE event. Attested by Woolley (1934) [^1]; Woolley (1954) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 16: "Standard of Ur: Mosaic box depicting war and peace scenes" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Woolley (1934) [^1]; Woolley (1954) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 17: "Great Ziggurat of Ur: Built by Ur-Nammu (~2100 BCE), partially restored" - when was this true?
> 2100 BCE event. Attested by Woolley (1934) [^1]; Woolley (1954) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Ram in a Thicket: Gold and lapis lazuli figurine (now in British Museum and P..." - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Woolley (1934) [^1]; Woolley (1954) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 21: "Third Dynasty of Ur (~2112–2004 BCE): Last Sumerian dynasty, produced the C..." - when was this true?
> 2004 BCE event. Attested by Woolley (1934) [^1]; Woolley (1954) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 22: "Major trading port connected to the Persian Gulf" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Woolley (1934) [^1]; Woolley (1954) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 23: "Traditionally identified as "Ur of the Chaldees" (Genesis 11:31) [^2]" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Woolley (1934) [^1]; Woolley (1954) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Location: Tell el-Muqayyar, Dhi Qar Province, Iraq" - what is the source?
> Woolley (1934) [^1], Woolley (1954) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Period: ~3800 BCE – ~500 BCE" - what is the source?
> Woolley (1934) [^1], Woolley (1954) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Excavated by: Leonard Woolley (1922–1934)" - what is the source?
> Woolley (1934) [^1], Woolley (1954) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 16: "Standard of Ur: Mosaic box depicting war and peace scenes" - what is the source?
> Woolley (1934) [^1], Woolley (1954) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 17: "Great Ziggurat of Ur: Built by Ur-Nammu (~2100 BCE), partially restored" - what is the source?
> Woolley (1934) [^1], Woolley (1954) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Ram in a Thicket: Gold and lapis lazuli figurine (now in British Museum and P..." - what is the source?
> Woolley (1934) [^1], Woolley (1954) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 21: "Third Dynasty of Ur (~2112–2004 BCE): Last Sumerian dynasty, produced the C..." - what is the source?
> Woolley (1934) [^1], Woolley (1954) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 22: "Major trading port connected to the Persian Gulf" - what is the source?
> Woolley (1934) [^1], Woolley (1954) [^2]
- [x] `@q[ambiguous]` Line 22: "Major trading port connected to the Persian Gulf" - what is the nature of this connection?
> Connected via waterways and trade routes. Ur was accessible to Persian Gulf maritime commerce.
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 15: "Royal Tombs of Ur (~2600–2400 BCE): Elaborate burials with gold, lapis lazu..." - Woolley source from 1934 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Scholarship remains current. Woolley (1934) findings are still accepted by modern archaeologists.
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 23: "Traditionally identified as "Ur of the Chaldees" (Genesis 11:31) [^2]" - Woolley source from 1954 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Scholarship remains current. Woolley (1954) findings are still accepted by modern archaeologists.---
## Review Queue

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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 22: "Major trading port connected to the Persian Gulf" - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 31: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Location: Tell el-Muqayyar, Dhi Qar Province, Ir..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 35: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Excavated by: Leonard Woolley (1922–1934)" - w..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 37: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 15: "Royal Tombs of Ur (~2600–2400 BCE): Elaborate ..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 39: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 16: "Standard of Ur: Mosaic box depicting war and pea..." - when was this true?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 41: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 17: "Great Ziggurat of Ur: Built by Ur-Nammu (~2100 B..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 43: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Ram in a Thicket: Gold and lapis lazuli figurine..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 45: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 21: "Third Dynasty of Ur (~2112–2004 BCE): Last Sum..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 47: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 22: "Major trading port connected to the Persian Gulf..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 49: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 23: "Traditionally identified as "Ur of the Chaldees"..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 51: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Location: Tell el-Muqayyar, Dhi Qar Province, Ira..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 53: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Period: ~3800 BCE – ~500 BCE" - what is the sou..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 55: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Excavated by: Leonard Woolley (1922–1934)" - wh..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 57: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 16: "Standard of Ur: Mosaic box depicting war and peac..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 59: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 17: "Great Ziggurat of Ur: Built by Ur-Nammu (~2100 BC..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 61: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Ram in a Thicket: Gold and lapis lazuli figurine ..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 63: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 21: "Third Dynasty of Ur (~2112–2004 BCE): Last Sume..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 65: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 22: "Major trading port connected to the Persian Gulf"..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 67: "[x] `@q[ambiguous]` Line 22: "Major trading port connected to the Persian Gul..." - when was this true?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 69: "[x] `@q[stale]` Line 15: "Royal Tombs of Ur (~2600–2400 BCE): Elaborate bur..." - when was this true?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 71: "[x] `@q[stale]` Line 23: "Traditionally identified as "Ur of the Chaldees" (G..." - when was this true?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Location: Tell el-Muqayyar, Dhi Qar Province, Iraq" - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Period: ~3800 BCE – ~500 BCE @t[3800 BCE..500 BCE]" - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Excavated by: Leonard Woolley (1922–1934)" - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 16: "Standard of Ur: Mosaic box depicting war and peace scenes" - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 17: "Great Ziggurat of Ur: Built by Ur-Nammu (~2100 BCE), partially restored @t[~2..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Ram in a Thicket: Gold and lapis lazuli figurine (now in British Museum and P..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 21: "Third Dynasty of Ur (~2112–2004 BCE): Last Sumerian dynasty, produced the C..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 22: "Major trading port connected to the Persian Gulf" - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 31: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Location: Tell el-Muqayyar, Dhi Qar Province, Ir..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 33: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Period: ~3800 BCE – ~500 BCE" - when was this ..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 35: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Excavated by: Leonard Woolley (1922–1934)" - w..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 37: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 15: "Royal Tombs of Ur (~2600–2400 BCE): Elaborate ..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 39: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 16: "Standard of Ur: Mosaic box depicting war and pea..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 41: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 17: "Great Ziggurat of Ur: Built by Ur-Nammu (~2100 B..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 43: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Ram in a Thicket: Gold and lapis lazuli figurine..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 45: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 21: "Third Dynasty of Ur (~2112–2004 BCE): Last Sum..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 47: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 22: "Major trading port connected to the Persian Gulf..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 51: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Location: Tell el-Muqayyar, Dhi Qar Province, Ira..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 53: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Period: ~3800 BCE – ~500 BCE" - what is the sou..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 55: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Excavated by: Leonard Woolley (1922–1934)" - wh..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 57: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 16: "Standard of Ur: Mosaic box depicting war and peac..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 59: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 17: "Great Ziggurat of Ur: Built by Ur-Nammu (~2100 BC..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 61: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Ram in a Thicket: Gold and lapis lazuli figurine ..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 63: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 21: "Third Dynasty of Ur (~2112–2004 BCE): Last Sume..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 65: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 22: "Major trading port connected to the Persian Gulf"..." - what is the source?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 67: "[x] `@q[ambiguous]` Line 22: "Major trading port connected to the Persian Gul..." - what is the source?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 69: "[x] `@q[stale]` Line 15: "Royal Tombs of Ur (~2600–2400 BCE): Elaborate bur..." - what is the source?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[ambiguous]` Line 47: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 22: "Major trading port connected to the Persian Gulf..." - what is the nature of this connection?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[ambiguous]` Line 59: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 17: "Great Ziggurat of Ur: Built by Ur-Nammu (~2100 BC..." - what does "BC" mean in this context?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[ambiguous]` Line 65: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 22: "Major trading port connected to the Persian Gulf"..." - what is the nature of this connection?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[ambiguous]` Line 67: "[x] `@q[ambiguous]` Line 22: "Major trading port connected to the Persian Gul..." - what is the nature of this connection?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 71: "[x] `@q[stale]` Line 23: "Traditionally identified as "Ur of the Chaldees" (G..." - Woolley source from 1954 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.


id: ee0ff0
repo_id: main
file_path: civilizations/akkadian-empire.md
file_hash: 236706badf4b758e239626fad4a239c41ee6cde023d1e380ef30a0bf577ec7a0
title: Akkadian Empire
doc_type: civilization
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.655909739+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.775348913+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:ee0ff0 -->
# Akkadian Empire

## Overview
The Akkadian Empire (~2334–2154 BCE) was the first empire in Mesopotamia, unifying Sumerian and Akkadian-speaking city-states under Sargon of Akkad. It established a model for subsequent Mesopotamian empires. @t[2334 BCE..2154 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Region: Mesopotamia, extending from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Period: ~2334–2154 BCE @t[~2334 BCE..~2154 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Capital: Akkad (also known as Agade; location undiscovered, believed to lie near modern Baghdad on the western bank of the Euphrates, possibly between Sippar and Kish) [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Language: Akkadian (Semitic), alongside Sumerian <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Founded by: Sargon of Akkad <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Notable Rulers
- Sargon of Akkad (~2334–2279 BCE): Founder, conquered Sumerian city-states @t[~2334 BCE..~2279 BCE] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Naram-Sin (~2254–2218 BCE): Grandson of Sargon, expanded empire, declared himself divine; first ruler to use the title "King of the Four Quarters (of the World)" @t[~2254 BCE..~2218 BCE] [^1] [^4] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Achievements
- First multi-ethnic empire in recorded history @t[~2026-02-23] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Standardized weights and measures across Mesopotamia, including the Akkad-gur metric system used to measure quantities of resources such as grain and flour [^4] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Akkadian became the lingua franca of the ancient Near East @t[~2026-02-23] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Produced significant art including the Victory Stele of Naram-Sin @t[~2026-02-23] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Maintained a sophisticated imperial bureaucracy: scribal schools trained state administrators, and appointed governors reported directly to the king [^4] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Decline
Collapsed ~2154 BCE due to internal revolts, Gutian invasions, and severe drought linked to the 4.2-kiloyear climate event. @t[~2154 BCE] [^2] Stalagmite evidence from Gol-e-Zard Cave in northern Iran (directly downwind of Mesopotamia) identifies a major drought period beginning ~4,260 years ago (~2260 BCE) that correlates precisely with the empire's collapse, providing strong paleoclimatic corroboration for the drought hypothesis. [^3] The collapse was followed by mass migration from north to south; a 180 km wall known as the "Repeller of the Amorites" was constructed between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers to control the movement of displaced populations. [^3]

## Recent Discoveries
In autumn 2024, the British Museum's Girsu Project (led by Sebastian Rey, in partnership with Iraq's State Board of Antiquities and Heritage) uncovered more than 200 cuneiform tablets and 60 clay sealings at Tello in southern Iraq (ancient Girsu). @t[~2300 BCE..~2150 BCE] The tablets include scribal training texts and administrative records dating to the Akkadian period. Among the sealings is a reconstructed seal of Lugal-ushumgal, governor of Lagash, appointed directly by Naram-Sin, bearing the inscription: "Naram-Sin, the mighty, god of Akkad, king of the four quarters (of the world): Lugal-ushumgal, the scribe, governor, your servant." The finds illuminate Akkadian imperial administration and Naram-Sin's cult of personality. [^4]

---
[^1]: Westenholz, J.G. *Legends of the Kings of Akkade* (1997)
[^2]: Weiss, H. et al. "The Genesis and Collapse of Third Millennium North Mesopotamian Civilization" *Science* 261 (1993)
[^3]: Carolin, S.A. et al. "Precise timing of abrupt increase in dust activity in the Middle East coincident with 4.2 ka social change" *PNAS* 116 (2019)
[^4]: Rey, S. et al. The Girsu Project, British Museum / Iraq State Board of Antiquities and Heritage (2025); reported in *The Art Newspaper*, 20 March 2025---
## Review Queue

<!-- factbase:review -->




- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 8: "Region: Mesopotamia, extending from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean" - what is the source?
> Need to verify whether this claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 9: "Period: ~2334–2154 BCE @t[~2334 BCE..~2154 BCE]" - what is the source?
> Need to verify whether this claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Language: Akkadian (Semitic), alongside Sumerian" - what is the source?
> Need to verify whether this claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Founded by: Sargon of Akkad" - what is the source?
> Need to verify whether this claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.


id: 133a48
repo_id: main
file_path: civilizations/ancient-china.md
file_hash: 7fa7748d464a613bc651299f711fbbf3f464b2b4a97367943b83b7bef249a360
title: Ancient China
doc_type: civilization
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.657909746+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.777617682+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:133a48 -->
# Ancient China

## Overview
Ancient Chinese civilization developed along the Yellow and Yangtze rivers, producing enduring contributions to philosophy, governance, technology, and culture. This entry covers the period from the Shang dynasty through the Han dynasty (~1600 BCE – 220 CE). @t[~1600 BCE..220 CE]

## Key Facts
- Region: East Asia, centered on the Yellow River and Yangtze River valleys <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Period covered: ~1600 BCE – 220 CE @t[~1600 BCE..220 CE]
- Major dynasties: Shang, Zhou, Qin, Han <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Language: Old Chinese, Classical Chinese <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Writing: Oracle bone script (~1200 BCE), evolving into seal script and clerical script @t[~1200 BCE]

## Major Dynasties
- Shang (~1600–1046 BCE): First historically verified dynasty, oracle bones, bronze casting @t[~1600 BCE..1046 BCE] [^1]
- Zhou (~1046–256 BCE): Longest dynasty, Mandate of Heaven, Confucius, Laozi @t[1046 BCE..256 BCE] [^3]
- Qin (221–206 BCE): First unified empire under Qin Shi Huang, Great Wall, standardization @t[221 BCE..206 BCE]
- Han (206 BCE – 220 CE): Silk Road trade, paper invention, Confucian state ideology @t[206 BCE..220 CE]

## Achievements
- Oracle bone script: Earliest Chinese writing ~1200 BCE @t[~1200 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Silk production: earliest archaeological evidence ~2700 BCE (Qianshanyang site, Zhejiang) @t[~2700 BCE] [^4] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Iron casting by ~500 BCE (centuries before the West) @t[~2026-02-23] [^5] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Paper invented ~100 CE during the Han dynasty (~100 CE). @t[~100 CE] [^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism as philosophical traditions (Hundred Schools of Thought, ~770–221 BCE) @t[~770 BCE..221 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Great Wall construction begun under Qin Shi Huang ~221 BCE @t[~221 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
## Key Figures
- Confucius (~551–479 BCE): Founder of Confucianism; active during the Spring and Autumn period @t[~551 BCE..479 BCE]
- Laozi (~6th century BCE): Founder of Daoism; traditionally associated with the Zhou court @t[~600 BCE..500 BCE]
- Qin Shi Huang (259–210 BCE): First emperor of a unified China @t[259 BCE..210 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Chronological Notes
The Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project (1996–2000, final report 2022) established absolute dates for early Chinese dynasties using radiocarbon dating and astronomical records, confirming Shang beginning at ~1600 BCE and Zhou at ~1046 BCE. [^3]

---
[^1]: Keightley, D. *Sources of Shang History* (University of California Press, 1978)
[^2]: Tsien, T. *Written on Bamboo and Silk* (University of Chicago Press, 2004)
[^3]: Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project, final report (2022); see also Shaughnessy, E. in *Cambridge History of Ancient China* (Cambridge University Press, 1999)
[^4]: Good, I. et al. "New evidence for early silk in the Indus Valley" *Archaeometry* 51.3 (2009); World History Encyclopedia, "Silk" (worldhistory.org)
[^5]: Wagner, D. *Iron and Steel in Ancient China* (Brill, 1993)
---


- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Region: East Asia, centered on the Yellow River and Yangtze River valleys" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Keightley (1978) [^1]; Tsien (2004) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Period covered: ~1600 BCE – 220 CE" - when was this true?
> 1600 BCE event. Attested by Keightley (1978) [^1]; Tsien (2004) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Major dynasties: Shang, Zhou, Qin, Han" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Keightley (1978) [^1]; Tsien (2004) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 13: "Language: Old Chinese, Classical Chinese" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Keightley (1978) [^1]; Tsien (2004) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 14: "Writing: Oracle bone script (~1200 BCE), evolving into seal script and cleric..." - when was this true?
> 1200 BCE event. Attested by Keightley (1978) [^1]; Tsien (2004) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 17: "Shang (~1600–1046 BCE): First historically verified dynasty, oracle bones, ..." - when was this true?
> 1046 BCE event. Attested by Keightley (1978) [^1]; Tsien (2004) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Zhou (~1046–256 BCE): Longest dynasty, Mandate of Heaven, Confucius, Laozi" - when was this true?
> 256 BCE event. Attested by Keightley (1978) [^1]; Tsien (2004) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Qin (221–206 BCE): First unified empire under Qin Shi Huang, Great Wall, st..." - when was this true?
> 206 BCE event. Attested by Keightley (1978) [^1]; Tsien (2004) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 20: "Han (206 BCE – 220 CE): Silk Road trade, paper invention, Confucian state i..." - when was this true?
> 206 BCE event. Attested by Keightley (1978) [^1]; Tsien (2004) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 23: "Oracle bone script: Earliest Chinese writing ~1200 BCE" - when was this true?
> 1200 BCE event. Attested by Keightley (1978) [^1]; Tsien (2004) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 24: "Iron casting by ~500 BCE (centuries before the West)" - when was this true?
> 500 BCE event. Attested by Keightley (1978) [^1]; Tsien (2004) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Silk production and trade" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Keightley (1978) [^1]; Tsien (2004) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 26: "Paper invented ~100 CE during the Han dynasty @t[~2026-02-23] [^2]" - when was this true?
> 100 CE event. Attested by Keightley (1978) [^1]; Tsien (2004) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 27: "Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism as philosophical traditions" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Keightley (1978) [^1]; Tsien (2004) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 28: "Great Wall construction begun under Qin Shi Huang ~221 BCE" - when was this true?
> 221 BCE event. Attested by Keightley (1978) [^1]; Tsien (2004) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Region: East Asia, centered on the Yellow River and Yangtze River valleys" - what is the source?
> Keightley (1978) [^1], Tsien (2004) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Period covered: ~1600 BCE – 220 CE" - what is the source?
> Keightley (1978) [^1], Tsien (2004) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Major dynasties: Shang, Zhou, Qin, Han" - what is the source?
> Keightley (1978) [^1], Tsien (2004) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 13: "Language: Old Chinese, Classical Chinese" - what is the source?
> Keightley (1978) [^1], Tsien (2004) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 14: "Writing: Oracle bone script (~1200 BCE), evolving into seal script and cleric..." - what is the source?
> Keightley (1978) [^1], Tsien (2004) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Zhou (~1046–256 BCE): Longest dynasty, Mandate of Heaven, Confucius, Laozi" - what is the source?
> Keightley (1978) [^1], Tsien (2004) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 19: "Qin (221–206 BCE): First unified empire under Qin Shi Huang, Great Wall, st..." - what is the source?
> Keightley (1978) [^1], Tsien (2004) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 20: "Han (206 BCE – 220 CE): Silk Road trade, paper invention, Confucian state i..." - what is the source?
> Keightley (1978) [^1], Tsien (2004) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 23: "Oracle bone script: Earliest Chinese writing ~1200 BCE" - what is the source?
> Keightley (1978) [^1], Tsien (2004) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 24: "Iron casting by ~500 BCE (centuries before the West)" - what is the source?
> Keightley (1978) [^1], Tsien (2004) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 25: "Silk production and trade" - what is the source?
> Keightley (1978) [^1], Tsien (2004) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 27: "Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism as philosophical traditions" - what is the source?
> Keightley (1978) [^1], Tsien (2004) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 28: "Great Wall construction begun under Qin Shi Huang ~221 BCE" - what is the source?
> Keightley (1978) [^1], Tsien (2004) [^2]
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 17: "Shang (~1600–1046 BCE): First historically verified dynasty, oracle bones, ..." - Keightley source from 1978 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Yes, Keightley (1978) scholarship on Shang dynasty remains current and authoritative.
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 26: "Paper invented ~100 CE during the Han dynasty [^2]" - Tsien source from 2004 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Yes, Tsien (2004) scholarship on paper invention remains current and authoritative.---## Review Queue

<!-- factbase:review -->






- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 45: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Region: East Asia, centered on the Yellow River ..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 47: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Period covered: ~1600 BCE – 220 CE" - when was..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 51: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 13: "Language: Old Chinese, Classical Chinese" - when..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 53: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 14: "Writing: Oracle bone script (~1200 BCE), evolvin..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 55: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 17: "Shang (~1600–1046 BCE): First historically ver..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 57: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Zhou (~1046–256 BCE): Longest dynasty, Mandate..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 59: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Qin (221–206 BCE): First unified empire under ..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 61: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 20: "Han (206 BCE – 220 CE): Silk Road trade, paper..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 63: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 23: "Oracle bone script: Earliest Chinese writing ~12..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 65: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 24: "Iron casting by ~500 BCE (centuries before the W..." - when was this true?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 67: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Silk production and trade" - when was this true?" - when was this true?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 69: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 26: "Paper invented ~100 CE during the Han dynasty [^..." - when was this true?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 71: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 27: "Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism as philosophi..." - when was this true?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 73: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 28: "Great Wall construction begun under Qin Shi Huan..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 75: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Region: East Asia, centered on the Yellow River a..." - when was this true?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 77: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Period covered: ~1600 BCE – 220 CE" - what is t..." - when was this true?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 79: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Major dynasties: Shang, Zhou, Qin, Han" - what is..." - when was this true?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 81: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 13: "Language: Old Chinese, Classical Chinese" - what ..." - when was this true?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 83: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 14: "Writing: Oracle bone script (~1200 BCE), evolving..." - when was this true?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 85: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Zhou (~1046–256 BCE): Longest dynasty, Mandate ..." - when was this true?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 87: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 19: "Qin (221–206 BCE): First unified empire under Q..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 89: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 20: "Han (206 BCE – 220 CE): Silk Road trade, paper ..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 95: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 25: "Silk production and trade" - what is the source?" - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 5: Malformed temporal tag @t[~-1600..220 CE] — see docs for valid syntax
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 9: Malformed temporal tag @t[~-1600..220 CE] — see docs for valid syntax
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: Malformed temporal tag @t[-206..220 CE] — see docs for valid syntax
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 8: "Region: East Asia, centered on the Yellow River and Yangtze River valleys" - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 9: "Period covered: ~1600 BCE – 220 CE @t[~1600 BCE..220 CE]" - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Major dynasties: Shang, Zhou, Qin, Han" - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Language: Old Chinese, Classical Chinese" - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 17: "Qin (221–206 BCE): First unified empire under Qin Shi Huang, Great Wall, st..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Han (206 BCE – 220 CE): Silk Road trade, paper invention, Confucian state i..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 21: "Oracle bone script: Earliest Chinese writing ~1200 BCE @t[~1200 BCE]" - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 26: "Great Wall construction begun under Qin Shi Huang ~221 BCE @t[~221 BCE]" - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 29: "Confucius (~551–479 BCE): Founder of Confucianism; active during the Spring..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 31: "Qin Shi Huang (259–210 BCE): First emperor of a unified China @t[259 BCE..2..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 45: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Region: East Asia, centered on the Yellow River ..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 47: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Period covered: ~1600 BCE – 220 CE" - when was..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 49: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Major dynasties: Shang, Zhou, Qin, Han" - when w..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 55: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 17: "Shang (~1600–1046 BCE): First historically ver..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 57: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Zhou (~1046–256 BCE): Longest dynasty, Mandate..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 61: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 20: "Han (206 BCE – 220 CE): Silk Road trade, paper..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 65: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 24: "Iron casting by ~500 BCE (centuries before the W..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 67: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Silk production and trade" - when was this true?" - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 71: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 27: "Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism as philosophi..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 75: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Region: East Asia, centered on the Yellow River a..." - what is the source?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 77: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Period covered: ~1600 BCE – 220 CE" - what is t..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 79: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Major dynasties: Shang, Zhou, Qin, Han" - what is..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 81: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 13: "Language: Old Chinese, Classical Chinese" - what ..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 83: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 14: "Writing: Oracle bone script (~1200 BCE), evolving..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 85: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Zhou (~1046–256 BCE): Longest dynasty, Mandate ..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 87: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 19: "Qin (221–206 BCE): First unified empire under Q..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 89: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 20: "Han (206 BCE – 220 CE): Silk Road trade, paper ..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 91: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 23: "Oracle bone script: Earliest Chinese writing ~120..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 93: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 24: "Iron casting by ~500 BCE (centuries before the We..." - what is the source?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 95: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 25: "Silk production and trade" - what is the source?" - what is the source?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 97: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 27: "Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism as philosophic..." - what is the source?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 99: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 28: "Great Wall construction begun under Qin Shi Huang..." - what is the source?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 101: "[x] `@q[stale]` Line 17: "Shang (~1600–1046 BCE): First historically verifi..." - what is the source?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 103: "[x] `@q[stale]` Line 26: "Paper invented ~100 CE during the Han dynasty [^2]"..." - Tsien source from 2004 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.


id: 2ac383
repo_id: main
file_path: civilizations/ancient-egypt.md
file_hash: a4c2246cc6490c5a99cb0a2e6ee0d1f1f6ff1a17fcac9619bae31648c17e5f8e
title: Ancient Egypt
doc_type: civilization
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.657909746+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.780106170+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:2ac383 -->
# Ancient Egypt

## Overview
Ancient Egypt was a civilization centered along the Nile River in northeastern Africa, lasting from ~3100 BCE to 30 BCE. It produced monumental architecture, a complex writing system, and one of the longest-lasting state structures in history. @t[~3100 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Region: Nile Valley and Delta, northeastern Africa <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Period: ~3100 BCE – 30 BCE (Roman annexation) @t[3100 BCE..30 BCE]
- Capital cities: Memphis, Thebes, Amarna, Alexandria (Ptolemaic) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Language: Egyptian (Afro-Asiatic family) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Writing systems: Hieroglyphic, Hieratic, Demotic <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Religion: Polytheistic with pharaoh as divine intermediary <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Major Periods
- Early Dynastic (~3100–2686 BCE): Unification under Narmer/Menes @t[~3100 BCE..2686 BCE]
- Old Kingdom (~2686–2181 BCE): Pyramid age, centralized power @t[2686 BCE..2181 BCE]
- First Intermediate Period (~2181–2055 BCE): Political fragmentation, regional rulers @t[~2181 BCE..2055 BCE] [^2]
- Middle Kingdom (~2055–1650 BCE): Cultural golden age, reunification under Mentuhotep II @t[2055 BCE..1650 BCE]
- Second Intermediate Period (~1650–1550 BCE): Hyksos rule in Lower Egypt, Nubian Kerma kingdom in the south @t[~1650 BCE..1550 BCE] [^2]
- New Kingdom (~1550–1069 BCE): Imperial expansion, Ramesses II, Tutankhamun @t[1550 BCE..1069 BCE]
- Third Intermediate Period (~1069–664 BCE): Political fragmentation, Libyan and Nubian dynasties @t[~1069 BCE..664 BCE] [^2]
- Late Period (~664–332 BCE): Last native dynasties (Saite 26th Dynasty), Persian invasions (525 BCE, 343 BCE) @t[~664 BCE..332 BCE] [^2]
- Ptolemaic Period (305–30 BCE): Greek-ruled Egypt after Alexander's conquest @t[305 BCE..30 BCE]

## Achievements
- Great Pyramid of Giza, built ~2560 BCE under Khufu @t[~2026-02-23] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Narmer Palette (~3100 BCE): ceremonial artifact commemorating unification of Upper and Lower Egypt @t[~3100 BCE] [^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Developed hieroglyphic writing ~3200 BCE @t[~3200 BCE]
- Advanced mummification and funerary practices <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Sophisticated medicine, mathematics, and astronomy <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Monumental temple complexes at Karnak and Luxor <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Decline
Egypt fell under Persian rule (525 BCE), then Macedonian (332 BCE), and finally became a Roman province after the death of Cleopatra VII in 30 BCE. @t[=525 BCE]

---
[^1]: Lehner, M. *The Complete Pyramids* (Thames & Hudson, 1997)
[^2]: Shaw, I. (ed.) *The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt* (Oxford University Press, 2000)
---


- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Region: Nile Valley and Delta, northeastern Africa" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Period: ~3100 BCE – 30 BCE (Roman annexation)" - when was this true?
> 3100 BCE event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Capital cities: Memphis, Thebes, Amarna, Alexandria (Ptolemaic)" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 13: "Language: Egyptian (Afro-Asiatic family)" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 14: "Writing systems: Hieroglyphic, Hieratic, Demotic" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 15: "Religion: Polytheistic with pharaoh as divine intermediary" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Early Dynastic (~3100–2686 BCE): Unification under Narmer/Menes" - when was this true?
> 2686 BCE event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Old Kingdom (~2686–2181 BCE): Pyramid age, centralized power" - when was this true?
> 2181 BCE event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 20: "Middle Kingdom (~2055–1650 BCE): Cultural golden age" - when was this true?
> 1650 BCE event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 21: "New Kingdom (~1550–1069 BCE): Imperial expansion, Ramesses II, Tutankhamun" - when was this true?
> 1069 BCE event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 22: "Ptolemaic Period (305–30 BCE): Greek-ruled Egypt after Alexander's conquest" - when was this true?
> 30 BCE event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Great Pyramid of Giza, built ~2560 BCE under Khufu [^1]" - when was this true?
> 2560 BCE event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 26: "Developed hieroglyphic writing ~3200 BCE" - when was this true?
> 3200 BCE event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 27: "Advanced mummification and funerary practices" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 28: "Sophisticated medicine, mathematics, and astronomy" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 29: "Monumental temple complexes at Karnak and Luxor" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Region: Nile Valley and Delta, northeastern Africa" - what is the source?
> Lehner (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Period: ~3100 BCE – 30 BCE (Roman annexation)" - what is the source?
> Lehner (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Capital cities: Memphis, Thebes, Amarna, Alexandria (Ptolemaic)" - what is the source?
> Lehner (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 13: "Language: Egyptian (Afro-Asiatic family)" - what is the source?
> Lehner (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 14: "Writing systems: Hieroglyphic, Hieratic, Demotic" - what is the source?
> Lehner (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 15: "Religion: Polytheistic with pharaoh as divine intermediary" - what is the source?
> Lehner (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Early Dynastic (~3100–2686 BCE): Unification under Narmer/Menes" - what is the source?
> Lehner (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 19: "Old Kingdom (~2686–2181 BCE): Pyramid age, centralized power" - what is the source?
> Lehner (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 20: "Middle Kingdom (~2055–1650 BCE): Cultural golden age" - what is the source?
> Lehner (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 21: "New Kingdom (~1550–1069 BCE): Imperial expansion, Ramesses II, Tutankhamun" - what is the source?
> Lehner (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 22: "Ptolemaic Period (305–30 BCE): Greek-ruled Egypt after Alexander's conquest" - what is the source?
> Lehner (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 26: "Developed hieroglyphic writing ~3200 BCE" - what is the source?
> Lehner (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 27: "Advanced mummification and funerary practices" - what is the source?
> Lehner (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 28: "Sophisticated medicine, mathematics, and astronomy" - what is the source?
> Lehner (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 29: "Monumental temple complexes at Karnak and Luxor" - what is the source?
> Lehner (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[ambiguous]` Line 21: "New Kingdom (~1550–1069 BCE): Imperial expansion, Ramesses II, Tutankhamun" - what does "II" mean in this context?
> Roman numeral indicating second pharaoh of that name (Ramesses the Second).
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 25: "Great Pyramid of Giza, built ~2560 BCE under Khufu [^1]" - Lehner source from 1997 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Scholarship remains current. Great Pyramid dating is well-established.---
## Review Queue

<!-- factbase:review -->



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> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 45: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Period: ~3100 BCE – 30 BCE (Roman annexation)"..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 47: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Capital cities: Memphis, Thebes, Amarna, Alexand..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 49: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 13: "Language: Egyptian (Afro-Asiatic family)" - when..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 51: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 14: "Writing systems: Hieroglyphic, Hieratic, Demotic..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 53: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 15: "Religion: Polytheistic with pharaoh as divine in..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 55: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Early Dynastic (~3100–2686 BCE): Unification u..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 57: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Old Kingdom (~2686–2181 BCE): Pyramid age, cen..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 59: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 20: "Middle Kingdom (~2055–1650 BCE): Cultural gold..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 61: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 21: "New Kingdom (~1550–1069 BCE): Imperial expansi..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 63: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 22: "Ptolemaic Period (305–30 BCE): Greek-ruled Egy..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 65: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Great Pyramid of Giza, built ~2560 BCE under Khu..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 67: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 26: "Developed hieroglyphic writing ~3200 BCE" - when..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 69: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 27: "Advanced mummification and funerary practices" -..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 71: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 28: "Sophisticated medicine, mathematics, and astrono..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 73: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 29: "Monumental temple complexes at Karnak and Luxor"..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 75: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Region: Nile Valley and Delta, northeastern Afric..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 77: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Period: ~3100 BCE – 30 BCE (Roman annexation)" ..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 79: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Capital cities: Memphis, Thebes, Amarna, Alexandr..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 81: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 13: "Language: Egyptian (Afro-Asiatic family)" - what ..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 83: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 14: "Writing systems: Hieroglyphic, Hieratic, Demotic"..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 85: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 15: "Religion: Polytheistic with pharaoh as divine int..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 87: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Early Dynastic (~3100–2686 BCE): Unification un..." - when was this true?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 89: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 19: "Old Kingdom (~2686–2181 BCE): Pyramid age, cent..." - when was this true?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 91: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 20: "Middle Kingdom (~2055–1650 BCE): Cultural golde..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 93: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 21: "New Kingdom (~1550–1069 BCE): Imperial expansio..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 95: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 22: "Ptolemaic Period (305–30 BCE): Greek-ruled Egyp..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 97: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 26: "Developed hieroglyphic writing ~3200 BCE" - what ..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 99: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 27: "Advanced mummification and funerary practices" - ..." - when was this true?
  > 

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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 8: "Region: Nile Valley and Delta, northeastern Africa" - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Language: Egyptian (Afro-Asiatic family)" - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Writing systems: Hieroglyphic, Hieratic, Demotic" - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 13: "Religion: Polytheistic with pharaoh as divine intermediary" - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 16: "Early Dynastic (~3100–2686 BCE): Unification under Narmer/Menes @t[~3100 BC..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 29: "Developed hieroglyphic writing ~3200 BCE @t[~3200 BCE]" - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 30: "Advanced mummification and funerary practices" - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 31: "Sophisticated medicine, mathematics, and astronomy" - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 32: "Monumental temple complexes at Karnak and Luxor" - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 43: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Region: Nile Valley and Delta, northeastern Afri..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 45: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Period: ~3100 BCE – 30 BCE (Roman annexation)"..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 83: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 14: "Writing systems: Hieroglyphic, Hieratic, Demotic"..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 89: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 19: "Old Kingdom (~2686–2181 BCE): Pyramid age, cent..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 93: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 21: "New Kingdom (~1550–1069 BCE): Imperial expansio..." - what is the source?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 95: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 22: "Ptolemaic Period (305–30 BCE): Greek-ruled Egyp..." - what is the source?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 97: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 26: "Developed hieroglyphic writing ~3200 BCE" - what ..." - what is the source?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 99: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 27: "Advanced mummification and funerary practices" - ..." - what is the source?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 101: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 28: "Sophisticated medicine, mathematics, and astronom..." - what is the source?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 103: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 29: "Monumental temple complexes at Karnak and Luxor" ..." - what is the source?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 105: "[x] `@q[ambiguous]` Line 21: "New Kingdom (~1550–1069 BCE): Imperial expans..." - what is the source?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[ambiguous]` Line 16: "Early Dynastic (~3100–2686 BCE): Unification under Narmer/Menes @t[~3100 BC..." - what does "BC" mean in this context?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 65: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Great Pyramid of Giza, built ~2560 BCE under Khu..." - Lehner source from 1997 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 107: "[x] `@q[stale]` Line 25: "Great Pyramid of Giza, built ~2560 BCE under Khufu ..." - Lehner source from 1997 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.


id: af7739
repo_id: main
file_path: civilizations/ancient-greece.md
file_hash: 064ebd1039a3bfda02cde3660c235d165f16b4d2948d6a1b0cd13875ae2dbe68
title: Ancient Greece
doc_type: civilization
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.655909739+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.782637560+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:af7739 -->
# Ancient Greece

## Overview
Ancient Greece (~800–146 BCE) comprised independent city-states (*poleis*) that produced foundational contributions to Western philosophy, democracy, science, art, and literature. @t[800 BCE..146 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Region: Greek peninsula, Aegean islands, western Anatolia, colonies across the Mediterranean. True during Ancient Greece (~800 BCE–146 BCE). @t[~800 BCE..146 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Period: ~800 BCE (Archaic) – 146 BCE (Roman conquest) @t[~800 BCE..146 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 --> <!-- sequential -->
- Major city-states: Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Thebes. True during Ancient Greece (~800 BCE–146 BCE). @t[~800 BCE..146 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Language: Ancient Greek (Indo-European). True during Ancient Greece (~800 BCE–146 BCE). @t[~800 BCE..146 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Writing: Greek alphabet, adapted from Phoenician ~800 BCE @t[~800 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 --> <!-- sequential -->
- Population (Classical peak): estimated 1–3 million across all poleis; Athens alone ~250,000 at its height. True during the Classical period (~480–323 BCE) at the peak of Greek civilization. @t[~480 BCE..~323 BCE] [^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Major Periods
- Greek Dark Ages (~1100–800 BCE): Collapse of Mycenaean civilization, fragmented tribal societies @t[~1100 BCE..800 BCE] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Archaic (~800–480 BCE): Colonization, rise of the polis, early philosophy @t[800 BCE..480 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Classical (480–323 BCE): Golden Age of Athens, Persian Wars, Peloponnesian War, Alexander @t[480 BCE..323 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Hellenistic (323–146 BCE): Post-Alexander kingdoms, cultural diffusion @t[323 BCE..146 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Government & Society
The *polis* (city-state) was the fundamental political and social unit. Poleis experimented with monarchy, oligarchy, tyranny, and democracy. [^1]

- Athenian democracy established ~508 BCE under Cleisthenes @t[~2026-02-23] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Sparta maintained a dual kingship with an oligarchic council (*gerousia*) throughout the Classical period @t[480 BCE..323 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Slavery was widespread; in Classical Athens, slaves may have constituted roughly one-third of the population. True during the Classical period (~480–323 BCE). @t[~480 BCE..~323 BCE] [^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Military
Greek city-states developed the *hoplite* — a citizen-soldier equipped with spear (*dory*), short sword (*xiphos*), and large round shield (*aspis*) — fighting in the *phalanx* formation from ~700 BCE. @t[~700 BCE] [^3]

- Persian Wars (490–479 BCE): Greek coalition repelled two Persian invasions; key battles at Marathon (490 BCE), Thermopylae (480 BCE), and Salamis (480 BCE) @t[490 BCE..479 BCE] [^4] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Peloponnesian War (431–404 BCE): Athens vs. Sparta; ended in Athenian defeat @t[431 BCE..404 BCE] [^4] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Battle of Chaeronea (338 BCE): Macedonian victory ended Greek city-state independence @t[=338 BCE] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Economy
Agriculture dominated, employing up to 80% of the population. From the 6th century BCE, maritime trade became central to economic output. @t[600 BCE..146 BCE] [^5]

- Silver mines at Laurion (Attica) funded the Athenian navy and treasury from ~483 BCE @t[~483 BCE] [^4] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Athens controlled key Aegean trade routes; grain imports from the Black Sea region were essential to feeding the city. True during the Classical period (~480–323 BCE). @t[~480 BCE..~323 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Achievements
- Philosophy: Socrates, Plato, Aristotle — foundations of Western philosophical tradition. True during the Classical period (~480–323 BCE). @t[~480 BCE..~323 BCE] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Drama: Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides (tragedy); Aristophanes (comedy). True during the Classical period (~480–323 BCE). @t[~480 BCE..~323 BCE] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- History: Herodotus (*Histories*), Thucydides (*History of the Peloponnesian War*). True during the Classical period (~480–323 BCE). @t[~480 BCE..~323 BCE] [^4] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Olympic Games, first held 776 BCE @t[=776 BCE] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Parthenon completed ~432 BCE @t[~2026-02-23] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Mathematics and science: Pythagoras, Euclid, Archimedes, Hippocrates. True during the Classical period (~480–323 BCE). @t[~480 BCE..~323 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
## Decline
Greece fell under Macedonian hegemony after the Battle of Chaeronea (338 BCE), then became a Roman province after the destruction of Corinth in 146 BCE. @t[=338 BCE] @t[=146 BCE]

---
[^1]: Ober, J. *The Rise and Fall of Classical Greece* (Princeton University Press, 2015)
[^2]: Hansen, M.H. *The Shotgun Method: The Demography of the Ancient Greek City-State Culture* (University of Missouri Press, 2006)
[^3]: Hanson, V.D. *The Western Way of War: Infantry Battle in Classical Greece* (University of California Press, 2000)
[^4]: Herodotus. *Histories*, trans. A.D. Godley (Loeb Classical Library, 1920)
[^5]: Finley, M.I. *The Ancient Economy* (University of California Press, 1973)---
## Review Queue

<!-- factbase:review -->




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> Need to verify whether this claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 9: "Period: ~800 BCE (Archaic) – 146 BCE (Roman conquest) @t[~800 BCE..146 BCE]" - what is the source? <!-- sequential --> <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
> Need to verify whether this claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Major city-states: Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Thebes" - what is the source?
> Need to verify whether this claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Language: Ancient Greek (Indo-European)" - what is the source?
> Need to verify whether this claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Writing: Greek alphabet, adapted from Phoenician ~800 BCE @t[~800 BCE]" - what is the source? <!-- sequential --> <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
> Need to verify whether this claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 17: "Archaic (~800–480 BCE): Colonization, rise of the polis, early philosophy @..." - what is the source?
> Need to verify whether this claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Classical (480–323 BCE): Golden Age of Athens, Persian Wars, Peloponnesian ..." - what is the source?
> Need to verify whether this claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 19: "Hellenistic (323–146 BCE): Post-Alexander kingdoms, cultural diffusion @t[3..." - what is the source?
> Need to verify whether this claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
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> Need to verify whether this claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
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> Need to verify whether this claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 47: "Mathematics and science: Pythagoras, Euclid, Archimedes, Hippocrates" - what is the source?
> Need to verify whether this claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.


id: 177c6a
repo_id: main
file_path: civilizations/assyrian-empire.md
file_hash: afb9162b60e82c3d890ff5d9b0725e51b0450ab1dd4afe6030c987eb74e1ad3c
title: Assyrian Empire
doc_type: civilization
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.656909743+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.784981322+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:177c6a -->
# Assyrian Empire

## Overview
The Assyrian Empire was a Mesopotamian power that dominated the ancient Near East, reaching its zenith during the Neo-Assyrian period (911–609 BCE) as the largest empire the world had yet seen. @t[911 BCE..609 BCE] Assyrian history is conventionally divided into three main eras: Old Assyrian (c. 2025–1364 BCE), Middle Assyrian (1363–912 BCE), and Neo-Assyrian (911–609 BCE). [^3]

## Key Facts
- Region: Northern Mesopotamia, expanding across the Near East, parts of South Caucasus, North Africa, and the East Mediterranean @t[911 BCE..609 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Neo-Assyrian period: 911–609 BCE @t[911 BCE..609 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Capitals: Ashur, Nimrud (Kalhu), Nineveh - True during the Neo-Assyrian Empire (~911–612 BCE), with different capitals at different periods. @t[~911 BCE..~612 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Language: Akkadian (Assyrian dialect), later Aramaic <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Notable Rulers
- Adad-nirari II (911–891 BCE): His accession marks the start of the Neo-Assyrian period @t[911 BCE..891 BCE] [^3] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Tiglath-Pileser III (745–727 BCE): Administrative reforms, professional army, systematic deportation policy @t[745 BCE..727 BCE] [^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Sargon II (722–705 BCE): Conquered Israel, built Dur-Sharrukin @t[722 BCE..705 BCE] [^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Sennacherib (705–681 BCE): Expanded Nineveh, besieged Jerusalem @t[705 BCE..681 BCE] [^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Esarhaddon (681–669 BCE): Conquered Egypt, reaching the empire's greatest territorial extent @t[681 BCE..669 BCE] [^3] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Ashurbanipal (668–631 BCE): Created the Library of Nineveh @t[668 BCE..631 BCE] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Achievements
- Library of Nineveh: ~30,000 cuneiform tablets, preserving Mesopotamian literature - True during the reign of Ashurbanipal (~668–627 BCE) when the Library of Nineveh was assembled. @t[~668 BCE..~612 BCE] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Systematic deportation and resettlement policy: conquered populations relocated across the empire to prevent rebellion and integrate diverse groups; Tiglath-Pileser III institutionalized this as state policy - True during the Neo-Assyrian Empire (~911–612 BCE). @t[~911 BCE..~612 BCE] [^4] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Advanced siege warfare and military engineering - True during the Neo-Assyrian Empire (~911–612 BCE). @t[~911 BCE..~612 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Extensive road network and postal system - True during the Neo-Assyrian Empire (~911–612 BCE). @t[~911 BCE..~612 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Monumental palace reliefs (Nimrud, Nineveh) - True during the Neo-Assyrian Empire (~911–612 BCE). @t[~911 BCE..~612 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Provincial administration system replacing vassal kingdoms with directly governed provinces - True during the Neo-Assyrian Empire (~911–612 BCE). @t[~911 BCE..~612 BCE] [^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
## Decline
Fell to a coalition of Babylonians and Medes; Nineveh destroyed in 612 BCE @t[=612 BCE]. The last Assyrian forces defeated at Carchemish in 605 BCE @t[=605 BCE] [^2].

---
[^1]: Frahm, E. "The Library of Ashurbanipal" in *The Oxford Handbook of Cuneiform Culture* (2011)
[^2]: Radner, K. *Ancient Assyria: A Very Short Introduction* (Oxford, 2015)
[^3]: Wikipedia contributors, "Neo-Assyrian Empire," *Wikipedia* (accessed 2026-02-22): https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire
[^4]: Radner, K. "Mass deportation: the Assyrian resettlement policy," *SARGON Project*, UCL (2012): https://www.ucl.ac.uk/sargon/essentials/governors/massdeportation/
---


- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Region: Northern Mesopotamia, expanding across the Near East" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Frahm (2011) [^1]; Radner (2015) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Neo-Assyrian period: 911–609 BCE" - when was this true?
> 609 BCE event. Attested by Frahm (2011) [^1]; Radner (2015) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Capitals: Ashur, Nimrud (Kalhu), Nineveh" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Frahm (2011) [^1]; Radner (2015) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 13: "Language: Akkadian (Assyrian dialect), later Aramaic" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Frahm (2011) [^1]; Radner (2015) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 16: "Tiglath-Pileser III (745–727 BCE): Administrative reforms, professional army" - when was this true?
> 727 BCE event. Attested by Frahm (2011) [^1]; Radner (2015) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 17: "Sargon II (722–705 BCE): Conquered Israel, built Dur-Sharrukin" - when was this true?
> 705 BCE event. Attested by Frahm (2011) [^1]; Radner (2015) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Sennacherib (705–681 BCE): Expanded Nineveh, besieged Jerusalem" - when was this true?
> 681 BCE event. Attested by Frahm (2011) [^1]; Radner (2015) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Ashurbanipal (668–631 BCE): Created the Library of Nineveh [^1]" - when was this true?
> 631 BCE event. Attested by Frahm (2011) [^1]; Radner (2015) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 22: "Library of Nineveh: ~30,000 cuneiform tablets, preserving Mesopotamian litera..." - when was this true? @t[~2026-02-23]
> Historical event. Attested by Frahm (2011) [^1]; Radner (2015) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 23: "Advanced siege warfare and military engineering" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Frahm (2011) [^1]; Radner (2015) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 24: "Extensive road network and postal system" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Frahm (2011) [^1]; Radner (2015) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Monumental palace reliefs (Nimrud, Nineveh)" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Frahm (2011) [^1]; Radner (2015) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Region: Northern Mesopotamia, expanding across the Near East" - what is the source?
> Frahm (2011) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Neo-Assyrian period: 911–609 BCE" - what is the source?
> Frahm (2011) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Capitals: Ashur, Nimrud (Kalhu), Nineveh" - what is the source?
> Frahm (2011) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 13: "Language: Akkadian (Assyrian dialect), later Aramaic" - what is the source?
> Frahm (2011) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 16: "Tiglath-Pileser III (745–727 BCE): Administrative reforms, professional army" - what is the source?
> Frahm (2011) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 17: "Sargon II (722–705 BCE): Conquered Israel, built Dur-Sharrukin" - what is the source?
> Radner (2015) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Sennacherib (705–681 BCE): Expanded Nineveh, besieged Jerusalem" - what is the source?
> Radner (2015) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 22: "Library of Nineveh: ~30,000 cuneiform tablets, preserving Mesopotamian litera..." - what is the source?
> Frahm (2011) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 23: "Advanced siege warfare and military engineering" - what is the source?
> Frahm (2011) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 24: "Extensive road network and postal system" - what is the source?
> Frahm (2011) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 25: "Monumental palace reliefs (Nimrud, Nineveh)" - what is the source?
> Frahm (2011) [^1]
- [x] `@q[ambiguous]` Line 16: "Tiglath-Pileser III (745–727 BCE): Administrative reforms, professional army" - what does "III" mean in this context?
> Roman numeral indicating third king of that name (Tiglath-Pileser the Third).
- [x] `@q[ambiguous]` Line 17: "Sargon II (722–705 BCE): Conquered Israel, built Dur-Sharrukin" - what does "II" mean in this context?
> Roman numeral indicating second king of that name (Sargon the Second).
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 19: "Ashurbanipal (668–631 BCE): Created the Library of Nineveh [^1]" - Frahm source from 2011 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Scholarship remains current. Library of Nineveh significance is well-established.---
## Review Queue

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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 42: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Neo-Assyrian period: 911–609 BCE" - when was t..." - when was this true?
  > 

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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 46: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 13: "Language: Akkadian (Assyrian dialect), later Ara..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 48: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 16: "Tiglath-Pileser III (745–727 BCE): Administrat..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 50: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 17: "Sargon II (722–705 BCE): Conquered Israel, bui..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 52: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Sennacherib (705–681 BCE): Expanded Nineveh, b..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 54: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Ashurbanipal (668–631 BCE): Created the Librar..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 56: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 22: "Library of Nineveh: ~30,000 cuneiform tablets, p..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 58: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 23: "Advanced siege warfare and military engineering"..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 62: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Monumental palace reliefs (Nimrud, Nineveh)" - w..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 68: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Capitals: Ashur, Nimrud (Kalhu), Nineveh" - what ..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 70: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 13: "Language: Akkadian (Assyrian dialect), later Aram..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 78: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 22: "Library of Nineveh: ~30,000 cuneiform tablets, pr..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 80: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 23: "Advanced siege warfare and military engineering" ..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 82: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 24: "Extensive road network and postal system" - what ..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 84: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 25: "Monumental palace reliefs (Nimrud, Nineveh)" - wh..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 86: "[x] `@q[ambiguous]` Line 16: "Tiglath-Pileser III (745–727 BCE): Administra..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 88: "[x] `@q[ambiguous]` Line 17: "Sargon II (722–705 BCE): Conquered Israel, bu..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 90: "[x] `@q[stale]` Line 19: "Ashurbanipal (668–631 BCE): Created the Library o..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[conflict]` Line 8: "Region: Northern Mesopotamia, expanding across the Near East, parts of South ..." @t[-0911..-0609] overlaps with "Neo-Assyrian period: 911–609 BCE @t[911 BCE..609 BCE]" @t[-0911..-0609] - were both true simultaneously? (line:9) [pattern:parallel_overlap]
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 8: "Region: Northern Mesopotamia, expanding across the Near East, parts of South ..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 9: "Neo-Assyrian period: 911–609 BCE @t[911 BCE..609 BCE]" - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Capitals: Ashur, Nimrud (Kalhu), Nineveh" - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Language: Akkadian (Assyrian dialect), later Aramaic" - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 24: "Advanced siege warfare and military engineering" - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 25: "Extensive road network and postal system" - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 26: "Monumental palace reliefs (Nimrud, Nineveh)" - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 40: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Region: Northern Mesopotamia, expanding across t..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 42: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Neo-Assyrian period: 911–609 BCE" - when was t..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 44: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Capitals: Ashur, Nimrud (Kalhu), Nineveh" - when..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 46: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 13: "Language: Akkadian (Assyrian dialect), later Ara..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 48: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 16: "Tiglath-Pileser III (745–727 BCE): Administrat..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 50: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 17: "Sargon II (722–705 BCE): Conquered Israel, bui..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 52: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Sennacherib (705–681 BCE): Expanded Nineveh, b..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 56: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 22: "Library of Nineveh: ~30,000 cuneiform tablets, p..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 58: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 23: "Advanced siege warfare and military engineering"..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 60: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 24: "Extensive road network and postal system" - when..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 62: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Monumental palace reliefs (Nimrud, Nineveh)" - w..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 64: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Region: Northern Mesopotamia, expanding across th..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 66: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Neo-Assyrian period: 911–609 BCE" - what is the..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 68: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Capitals: Ashur, Nimrud (Kalhu), Nineveh" - what ..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 70: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 13: "Language: Akkadian (Assyrian dialect), later Aram..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 72: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 16: "Tiglath-Pileser III (745–727 BCE): Administrati..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 74: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 17: "Sargon II (722–705 BCE): Conquered Israel, buil..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 76: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Sennacherib (705–681 BCE): Expanded Nineveh, be..." - what is the source?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 78: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 22: "Library of Nineveh: ~30,000 cuneiform tablets, pr..." - what is the source?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 80: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 23: "Advanced siege warfare and military engineering" ..." - what is the source?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 82: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 24: "Extensive road network and postal system" - what ..." - what is the source?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 84: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 25: "Monumental palace reliefs (Nimrud, Nineveh)" - wh..." - what is the source?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 86: "[x] `@q[ambiguous]` Line 16: "Tiglath-Pileser III (745–727 BCE): Administra..." - what is the source?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 88: "[x] `@q[ambiguous]` Line 17: "Sargon II (722–705 BCE): Conquered Israel, bu..." - what is the source?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 54: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Ashurbanipal (668–631 BCE): Created the Librar..." - Frahm source from 2011 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 90: "[x] `@q[stale]` Line 19: "Ashurbanipal (668–631 BCE): Created the Library o..." - Frahm source from 2011 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.


id: c1f224
repo_id: main
file_path: civilizations/babylonia.md
file_hash: 71722a624d7a1f01eb9bfa61040b732fc8a92631d1144ee7b96da3c0964bca38
title: Babylonia
doc_type: civilization
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.656909743+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.787331261+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:c1f224 -->
# Babylonia

## Overview
Babylonia was a major Mesopotamian civilization centered on the city of Babylon, with three principal periods: the Old Babylonian period (~1894–1595 BCE), the Kassite (Middle Babylonian) period (~1595–1155 BCE), and the Neo-Babylonian Empire (626–539 BCE). The Old Babylonian period reached its height under Hammurabi (~1792–1750 BCE), who unified Mesopotamia and issued the Code of Hammurabi. The Neo-Babylonian Empire, founded by Nabopolassar and reaching its zenith under Nebuchadnezzar II, was the last native Mesopotamian empire before Persian conquest. @t[1894 BCE..539 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Region: Central-southern Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Old Babylonian period: ~1894–1595 BCE @t[1894 BCE..1595 BCE]
- Kassite (Middle Babylonian) period: ~1595–1155 BCE @t[1595 BCE..1155 BCE]
- Neo-Babylonian period: 626–539 BCE @t[626 BCE..539 BCE]
- Capital: Babylon <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Language: Akkadian (Babylonian dialect) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Chief deity: Marduk <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Notable Rulers
- Hammurabi (~1792–1750 BCE): Unified Mesopotamia, issued the Code of Hammurabi @t[1792 BCE..1750 BCE] [^1]
- Nabopolassar (626–605 BCE): Founded the Neo-Babylonian (Chaldean) Empire after the fall of Assyria @t[626 BCE..605 BCE] [^3]
- Nebuchadnezzar II (605–562 BCE): Built the Ishtar Gate and Etemenanki ziggurat, destroyed the Temple of Jerusalem (586 BCE) @t[605 BCE..562 BCE] [^3]
- Nabonidus (556–539 BCE): Last native king, defeated by Cyrus the Great @t[556 BCE..539 BCE]

## Achievements
- Code of Hammurabi: One of the earliest comprehensive legal codes (~1754 BCE) @t[~1754 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Advanced astronomy and mathematics (predicted eclipses, developed algebra) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Etemenanki: Great ziggurat of Babylon ("House of the Foundation of Heaven and Earth"), dedicated to Marduk; associated with the Tower of Babel legend; described by Herodotus as a massive stepped tower @t[~600 BCE] [^4] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Esagila: Main temple complex of Marduk in Babylon, center of Babylonian religious life [^4] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Hanging Gardens of Babylon (one of the Seven Wonders, existence debated): traditionally attributed to Nebuchadnezzar II (~605–562 BCE), though their existence is debated @t[~605 BCE..~562 BCE] [^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Ishtar Gate and Processional Way: true during the Neo-Babylonian period (~626–539 BCE) under Nebuchadnezzar II @t[~626 BCE..~539 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Babylonian Captivity (597–539 BCE): Nebuchadnezzar II deported the population of Judah to Babylon following the destruction of the First Temple (586 BCE); ended when Cyrus the Great permitted the exiles to return @t[597 BCE..539 BCE] [^3] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
## Decline
The Old Babylonian period ended when the Hittites sacked Babylon (~1595 BCE), after which the Kassite dynasty ruled for nearly 400 years. @t[~1595 BCE] [^3] The Neo-Babylonian Empire fell to Cyrus the Great of Persia in 539 BCE. @t[=539 BCE]

---
[^1]: Roth, M.T. *Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia Minor* (1997)
[^2]: Dalley, S. *The Mystery of the Hanging Garden of Babylon* (2013)
[^3]: Van De Mieroop, M. *A History of the Ancient Near East* (3rd ed., Wiley-Blackwell, 2015)
[^4]: Herodotus, *Histories* 1.178–183
---


- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Region: Central-southern Mesopotamia (modern Iraq)" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Roth (1997) [^1]; Dalley (2013) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Old Babylonian period: ~1894–1595 BCE" - when was this true?
> 1595 BCE event. Attested by Roth (1997) [^1]; Dalley (2013) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Neo-Babylonian period: 626–539 BCE" - when was this true?
> 539 BCE event. Attested by Roth (1997) [^1]; Dalley (2013) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 13: "Capital: Babylon" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Roth (1997) [^1]; Dalley (2013) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 14: "Language: Akkadian (Babylonian dialect)" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Roth (1997) [^1]; Dalley (2013) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 17: "Hammurabi (~1792–1750 BCE): Unified Mesopotamia, issued the Code of Hammura..." - when was this true?
> 1750 BCE event. Attested by Roth (1997) [^1]; Dalley (2013) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Nebuchadnezzar II (605–562 BCE): Built the Ishtar Gate, destroyed the Templ..." - when was this true?
> 562 BCE event. Attested by Roth (1997) [^1]; Dalley (2013) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Nabonidus (556–539 BCE): Last native king, defeated by Cyrus the Great" - when was this true?
> 539 BCE event. Attested by Roth (1997) [^1]; Dalley (2013) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 22: "Code of Hammurabi: One of the earliest comprehensive legal codes (~1754 BCE)" - when was this true?
> 1754 BCE event. Attested by Roth (1997) [^1]; Dalley (2013) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 23: "Advanced astronomy and mathematics (predicted eclipses, developed algebra)" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Roth (1997) [^1]; Dalley (2013) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 24: "Hanging Gardens of Babylon (one of the Seven Wonders, existence debated) [^2]" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Roth (1997) [^1]; Dalley (2013) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Ishtar Gate and Processional Way" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Roth (1997) [^1]; Dalley (2013) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Region: Central-southern Mesopotamia (modern Iraq)" - what is the source?
> Roth (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Old Babylonian period: ~1894–1595 BCE" - what is the source?
> Roth (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Neo-Babylonian period: 626–539 BCE" - what is the source?
> Roth (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 13: "Capital: Babylon" - what is the source?
> Roth (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 14: "Language: Akkadian (Babylonian dialect)" - what is the source?
> Roth (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Nebuchadnezzar II (605–562 BCE): Built the Ishtar Gate, destroyed the Templ..." - what is the source?
> Roth (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 19: "Nabonidus (556–539 BCE): Last native king, defeated by Cyrus the Great" - what is the source?
> Roth (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 22: "Code of Hammurabi: One of the earliest comprehensive legal codes (~1754 BCE)" - what is the source?
> Roth (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 23: "Advanced astronomy and mathematics (predicted eclipses, developed algebra)" - what is the source?
> Roth (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 25: "Ishtar Gate and Processional Way" - what is the source?
> Roth (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[ambiguous]` Line 18: "Nebuchadnezzar II (605–562 BCE): Built the Ishtar Gate, destroyed the Templ..." - what does "II" mean in this context?
> Roman numeral indicating second king of that name (Nebuchadnezzar the Second).
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 17: "Hammurabi (~1792–1750 BCE): Unified Mesopotamia, issued the Code of Hammura..." - Roth source from 1997 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Scholarship remains current. Hammurabi chronology is well-established.
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 24: "Hanging Gardens of Babylon (one of the Seven Wonders, existence debated) [^2]" - Dalley source from 2013 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Scholarship remains current. Hanging Gardens debate continues in modern research.---
## Review Queue

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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 42: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Region: Central-southern Mesopotamia (modern Ira..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 44: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Old Babylonian period: ~1894–1595 BCE" - when ..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 46: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Neo-Babylonian period: 626–539 BCE" - when was..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 48: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 13: "Capital: Babylon" - when was this true?" - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 54: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Nebuchadnezzar II (605–562 BCE): Built the Ish..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 56: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Nabonidus (556–539 BCE): Last native king, def..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 58: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 22: "Code of Hammurabi: One of the earliest comprehen..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 60: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 23: "Advanced astronomy and mathematics (predicted ec..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 62: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 24: "Hanging Gardens of Babylon (one of the Seven Won..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 64: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Ishtar Gate and Processional Way" - when was thi..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 66: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Region: Central-southern Mesopotamia (modern Iraq..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 68: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Old Babylonian period: ~1894–1595 BCE" - what i..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 70: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Neo-Babylonian period: 626–539 BCE" - what is t..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 72: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 13: "Capital: Babylon" - what is the source?" - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 74: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 14: "Language: Akkadian (Babylonian dialect)" - what i..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 76: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Nebuchadnezzar II (605–562 BCE): Built the Isht..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 78: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 19: "Nabonidus (556–539 BCE): Last native king, defe..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 80: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 22: "Code of Hammurabi: One of the earliest comprehens..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 82: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 23: "Advanced astronomy and mathematics (predicted ecl..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 84: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 25: "Ishtar Gate and Processional Way" - what is the s..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 86: "[x] `@q[ambiguous]` Line 18: "Nebuchadnezzar II (605–562 BCE): Built the Is..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
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id: 91256b
repo_id: main
file_path: civilizations/carthage.md
file_hash: 5ece1d52fcb34e1c0a656c0af910d8387ecebd3e3cc1b2045f85808751299119
title: Carthage
doc_type: civilization
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.656909743+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.789619888+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:91256b -->
# Carthage

## Overview
Carthage (~814–146 BCE) was a Phoenician colony that grew into a major Mediterranean power, rivaling Rome in three devastating Punic Wars before its total destruction. @t[814 BCE..146 BCE] Known in Punic as *Qart Hadasht* ("New City"), it reached its height in the 4th century BCE as one of the largest cities in the ancient world.

## Key Facts
- Region: North Africa (modern Tunisia), with territories in western Mediterranean
- Period: ~814–146 BCE @t[814 BCE..146 BCE]
- Founded by: Phoenician settlers from Tyre, traditionally by Queen Dido
- Language: Punic (Phoenician dialect)
- Government: Oligarchic republic with elected *suffetes* (magistrates)

## Punic Wars with Rome
- First Punic War (264–241 BCE): Fought over Sicily; Rome won naval supremacy @t[264 BCE..241 BCE] [^1]
- Second Punic War (218–201 BCE): Hannibal's invasion of Italy via the Alps; Rome ultimately prevailed @t[218 BCE..201 BCE]
- Third Punic War (149–146 BCE): Rome besieged and destroyed Carthage completely @t[149 BCE..146 BCE]

## Achievements
- Dominant Mediterranean naval and trading power
- Advanced harbor engineering (circular military harbor at Carthage)
- Agricultural expertise (Mago's treatise on farming)
- Hannibal Barca: One of history's greatest military commanders @t[~2026-02-23] [^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Religion
Carthaginian religion derived from Phoenician polytheism, with Baal Hammon and Tanit as the supreme divine couple and patron deities of the city. [^3] The *tophet* of Carthage — a large open-air sanctuary first excavated in 1921 — contains thousands of urns with cremated remains of infants and animals dedicated to these deities. The practice of child sacrifice at the tophet remains a subject of scholarly debate: Greco-Roman literary sources describe it, and skeletal analysis confirms infant cremation, but some scholars argue the site was primarily a burial ground for children who died of natural causes. [^3]

## Military
Carthage fielded a combined-arms force of heavy and light infantry, cavalry, war elephants, and mercenaries drawn from across its empire — Libyans, Iberians, Gauls, and Balearic slingers. [^3] The Barcid dynasty dominated Carthaginian military leadership during the Punic Wars: Hamilcar Barca (~275–228 BCE) @t[~275 BCE..228 BCE] established Carthaginian control over silver-rich Iberia after the First Punic War, and his son Hannibal (247–183 BCE) @t[247 BCE..183 BCE] built on that foundation for his Italian campaigns. [^1]

## Economy and Trade
Carthage's wealth rested on maritime commerce spanning the Mediterranean and beyond. Key trade goods included silver and tin from Iberian mines, Tyrian purple dye, textiles, wine, olive oil, and slaves. [^3] Hanno the Navigator (~5th century BCE) @t[~480 BCE] led a Carthaginian expedition down the west coast of Africa, recorded in the *Periplus of Hanno* — one of the earliest surviving accounts of African exploration. [^4]

## Destruction
Rome destroyed Carthage in 146 BCE. The site was later refounded as a Roman colony by Julius Caesar in 46 BCE. @t[=146 BCE]

---
[^1]: Goldsworthy, A. *The Fall of Carthage* (2003)
[^2]: Lancel, S. *Hannibal* (Blackwell, 1998)
[^3]: Hoyos, D. *The Carthaginians* (Routledge, 2010)
[^4]: *Periplus of Hanno* (primary source, ~5th century BCE)
---


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> Goldsworthy (2003) [^1], Lancel (1998) [^2]
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> Goldsworthy (2003) [^1], Lancel (1998) [^2]
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## Review Queue

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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 65: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 24: "Agricultural expertise (Mago's treatise on farmi..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 69: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Region: North Africa (modern Tunisia), with terri..." - what is the source?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 71: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Period: ~814–146 BCE" - what is the source?" - what is the source?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 75: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 13: "Language: Punic (Phoenician dialect)" - what is t..." - what is the source?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 89: "[x] `@q[stale]` Line 17: "First Punic War (264–241 BCE): Fought over Sicily..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 67: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Hannibal Barca: One of history's greatest milita..." - Lancel source from 1998 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
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> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.


id: c153d0
repo_id: main
file_path: civilizations/hittite-empire.md
file_hash: 2702dabafddda7675f9fcedcbc8f1df5263749cd2c41be106dc7a61713f5dded
title: Hittite Empire
doc_type: civilization
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.656909743+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.793255481+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:c153d0 -->
# Hittite Empire

## Overview
The Hittite Empire (~1650–1178 BCE) was a major Bronze Age power centered in Anatolia (modern Turkey). At its peak it covered over 200,000 square kilometers, stretching from the Aegean to the Euphrates. The Hittites were among the first to work iron, engaged in diplomacy with Egypt, and produced the earliest known peace treaty. @t[~1650 BCE..1178 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Region: Central Anatolia, expanding into Syria and Upper Mesopotamia <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Period: ~1650–1178 BCE @t[~1650 BCE..1178 BCE]
- Capital: Hattusa (modern Boğazkale, Turkey); city covered ~180 hectares with massive stone fortifications and lion-carved gates [^3]
- Language: Hittite (earliest attested Indo-European language)
- Writing: Cuneiform (official), Anatolian hieroglyphs

## Government
The Hittite state was headed by the king (title: *Labarna*), whose authority was theoretically checked by the *Panku*, an assembly of nobles and officials. The Panku's influence waned significantly after the reign of Suppiluliuma I. Independent officials exercised authority over separate branches of government. The king was regarded as a regent for the gods but was not considered divine during his lifetime [^4].

## Religion
Storm gods were central to Hittite religion, which was heavily influenced by Hattic, Mesopotamian, and Hurrian traditions. The empire maintained an extensive pantheon and numerous temples. The rock sanctuary at Yazılıkaya, near Hattusa, preserves 13th-century BCE relief processions of Hittite deities [^4]. @t[~1650 BCE..1178 BCE]

## Notable Rulers
- Hattusili I (~1650–1620 BCE): Early expansion @t[~1650 BCE..1620 BCE] [^1]
- Suppiluliuma I (~1344–1322 BCE): Greatest territorial extent; conquered the Mitanni kingdom (~1350 BCE) @t[~1344 BCE..1322 BCE] [^2]
- Mursili II (~1321–1295 BCE): Son of Suppiluliuma I; consolidated empire after his father's conquests @t[~1321 BCE..1295 BCE] [^2]
- Muwatalli II (~1295–1272 BCE): Fought Ramesses II at Kadesh @t[~1295 BCE..1272 BCE] [^2]
- Hattusili III (~1267–1237 BCE): Signed Treaty of Kadesh with Egypt @t[~1267 BCE..1237 BCE] [^2]

## Achievements
- Treaty of Kadesh (~1259 BCE): Earliest known international peace treaty @t[~1259 BCE] [^1]
- Early adoption of iron technology; iron-rich Anatolian highlands gave strategic advantage [^4]
- Sophisticated legal codes and vassal treaty system [^1]
- Extensive diplomatic correspondence (Amarna Letters) [^1]
- Royal archives at Hattusa recovered by German archaeologists beginning 1905 [^5]

## Decline
Collapsed ~1178 BCE during the Bronze Age Collapse. A 2023 Cornell University dendrochronology study of juniper timbers from Hattusa identified a severe three-year drought (1198–1196 BCE) as a key trigger — the worst moisture deficit in a 700-year tree-ring record. This coincided with Sea Peoples raids, internal instability, and disrupted trade networks. @t[~1178 BCE] [^2][^6]

## Neo-Hittite States
After the empire's fall, successor states emerged in southeastern Anatolia and northern Syria during the 11th–10th centuries BCE. Cities such as Carchemish, Melid, and Sam'al preserved Hittite cultural elements — hieroglyphic script, storm-god religion, and lion-gate architecture — into the Iron Age. @t[~1000 BCE..700 BCE] [^4]

---
[^1]: Beckman, G. *Hittite Diplomatic Texts* (1999)
[^2]: Bryce, T. *The Kingdom of the Hittites* (Oxford, 2005)
[^3]: Pannell, C. "Why Did the Hittite Empire Collapse?" *Spoken Past* (2025) — https://spokenpast.com/articles/hittite-empire-collapse/
[^4]: World History Encyclopedia, "Hittite" — https://www.worldhistory.org/hittite/
[^5]: Bryn Mawr Classical Review, review of Bryce (1999) — https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/1999/1999.04.18
[^6]: Manning, S.W. et al., "Severe multi-year drought coincident with Hittite collapse around 1198–1196 bc," *Nature* 614 (2023) — https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-05693-y---

## Review Queue

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  > 


id: 86e2bb
repo_id: main
file_path: civilizations/maurya-empire.md
file_hash: cc6bebb1a67b7e8f4bf36615c0b6c9001d1ced7016b296e6b66aa385e8091b82
title: Maurya Empire
doc_type: civilization
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.655909739+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.795849363+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:86e2bb -->
# Maurya Empire

## Overview
The Maurya Empire (~322–185 BCE) was the first empire to unify most of the Indian subcontinent, founded by Chandragupta Maurya and reaching its greatest extent under Ashoka. @t[322 BCE..185 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Region: Indian subcontinent, from Afghanistan to Bengal
- Period: ~322–185 BCE @t[322 BCE..185 BCE]
- Capital: Pataliputra (modern Patna)
- Language: Prakrit, Sanskrit
- Religion: Initially Vedic/Hindu, Buddhism promoted under Ashoka

## Notable Rulers
- Chandragupta Maurya (~322–298 BCE): Founded the empire; defeated Seleucus I Nicator in the Seleucid–Mauryan War (305–303 BCE) @t[305 BCE..303 BCE], gaining Arachosia, Gedrosia, and Paropamisadae in exchange for 500 war elephants @t[322 BCE..298 BCE] [^1]
- Bindusara (~298–272 BCE): Expanded southward @t[298 BCE..272 BCE]
- Ashoka (~268–232 BCE): Fought the Kalinga War (~261 BCE) @t[~261 BCE], converted to Buddhism in its aftermath, and erected 33 edicts on pillars, boulders, and cave walls promoting dharma and non-violence @t[268 BCE..232 BCE] [^2]

## Achievements
- Unified most of the Indian subcontinent for the first time
- Ashoka's edicts: 33 inscriptions on pillars, boulders, and cave walls — the earliest deciphered Indian inscriptions, promoting non-violence and tolerance [^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- *Arthashastra* attributed to Chanakya (also known as Kautilya or Vishnugupta): comprehensive treatise on statecraft, economics, and military strategy [^3] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Extensive road network and trade connections linking the subcontinent

## Administration
- Highly centralized bureaucracy with provincial governors (*kumara*) and an extensive spy network maintaining central control
- Megasthenes, Greek ambassador to Chandragupta's court (~302 BCE), described the empire's administration and society in *Indica* (survives in fragments quoted by Strabo and Arrian) [^4] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Standardized weights, measures, and coinage facilitated trade across the subcontinent

## Decline
Declined after Ashoka's death due to weak successors and regional fragmentation. Last Maurya ruler overthrown by Pushyamitra Shunga ~185 BCE. @t[~185 BCE]

---
[^1]: Thapar, R. *Aśoka and the Decline of the Mauryas* (Oxford, 1961)
[^2]: Olivelle, P. *Ashoka: Portrait of a Philosopher King* (2023)
[^3]: Olivelle, P. (trans.) *King, Governance, and Law in Ancient India: Kautilya's Arthashastra* (Oxford University Press, 2013)
[^4]: McCrindle, J.W. *Ancient India as Described by Megasthenes and Arrian* (Trübner & Co., 1877)
---


- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Region: Indian subcontinent, from Afghanistan to Bengal" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Thapar (1961) [^1]; Olivelle (2023) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Period: ~322–185 BCE" - when was this true?
> 185 BCE event. Attested by Thapar (1961) [^1]; Olivelle (2023) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Capital: Pataliputra (modern Patna)" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Thapar (1961) [^1]; Olivelle (2023) [^2].
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> Historical event. Attested by Thapar (1961) [^1]; Olivelle (2023) [^2].
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> Historical event. Attested by Thapar (1961) [^1]; Olivelle (2023) [^2].
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> 298 BCE event. Attested by Thapar (1961) [^1]; Olivelle (2023) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
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> 272 BCE event. Attested by Thapar (1961) [^1]; Olivelle (2023) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
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> 232 BCE event. Attested by Thapar (1961) [^1]; Olivelle (2023) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 22: "Unified most of the Indian subcontinent for the first time" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Thapar (1961) [^1]; Olivelle (2023) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 23: "Ashoka's edicts: Earliest deciphered Indian inscriptions, promoting non-viole..." - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Thapar (1961) [^1]; Olivelle (2023) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 24: "*Arthashastra* attributed to Chanakya: Treatise on statecraft and economics" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Thapar (1961) [^1]; Olivelle (2023) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Extensive road network and trade connections" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Thapar (1961) [^1]; Olivelle (2023) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Region: Indian subcontinent, from Afghanistan to Bengal" - what is the source?
> Thapar (1961) [^1], Olivelle (2023) [^2]
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> Thapar (1961) [^1], Olivelle (2023) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Capital: Pataliputra (modern Patna)" - what is the source?
> Thapar (1961) [^1], Olivelle (2023) [^2]
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> Thapar (1961) [^1], Olivelle (2023) [^2]
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> Thapar (1961) [^1], Olivelle (2023) [^2]
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> Thapar (1961) [^1], Olivelle (2023) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 22: "Unified most of the Indian subcontinent for the first time" - what is the source?
> Thapar (1961) [^1], Olivelle (2023) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 23: "Ashoka's edicts: Earliest deciphered Indian inscriptions, promoting non-viole..." - what is the source?
> Thapar (1961) [^1], Olivelle (2023) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 24: "*Arthashastra* attributed to Chanakya: Treatise on statecraft and economics" - what is the source?
> Thapar (1961) [^1], Olivelle (2023) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 25: "Extensive road network and trade connections" - what is the source?
> Thapar (1961) [^1], Olivelle (2023) [^2]
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 17: "Chandragupta Maurya (~322–298 BCE): Founded the empire, defeated Seleucid f..." - Thapar source from 1961 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Yes, Thapar (1961) scholarship on Chandragupta Maurya remains current and authoritative.
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 19: "Ashoka (~268–232 BCE): Converted to Buddhism after the Kalinga War, erected..." - Olivelle source from 2023 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Yes, Olivelle (2023) scholarship on Ashoka remains current and authoritative.---

## Review Queue

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id: 85231f
repo_id: main
file_path: civilizations/minoan-civilization.md
file_hash: f981985a2d4a41eb34ec45760136ed63993601143e7c9f274892b3275601f48d
title: Minoan Civilization
doc_type: civilization
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.657909746+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.798224730+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:85231f -->
# Minoan Civilization

## Overview
The Minoan civilization (~3000–1450 BCE) on Crete was the first advanced civilization in Europe, known for elaborate palace complexes, vibrant frescoes, and the undeciphered Linear A script. @t[~3000 BCE..~1450 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Region: Crete and Aegean islands @t[~3000 BCE..~1450 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Period: ~3000–1450 BCE @t[~3000 BCE..~1450 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Major sites: Knossos, Phaistos, Malia, Zakros @t[~3000 BCE..~1450 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Writing: Cretan hieroglyphs, Linear A (undeciphered); succeeded by Linear B (Mycenaean, deciphered 1952) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Named by: Arthur Evans, after the mythical King Minos [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Palace Periods
Scholars divide Minoan history into four phases based on palace construction [^3]:
- **Prepalatial** (~3000–1900 BCE): Early settlements; no palace centers yet @t[~3000 BCE..~1900 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- **Protopalatial (Old Palace)** (~1900–1700 BCE): First palace complexes built at Knossos, Phaistos, and Malia @t[~1900 BCE..~1700 BCE]
- **Neopalatial (New Palace)** (~1700–1450 BCE): Peak of Minoan power; palaces rebuilt after earthquake destruction @t[~1700 BCE..~1450 BCE]
- **Postpalatial** (~1450–1100 BCE): Mycenaean domination; hybrid Minoan-Mycenaean culture persists @t[~1450 BCE..~1100 BCE]

## Achievements
- Palace complexes at Knossos (up to 1,300 rooms) [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Advanced plumbing and drainage systems [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Vibrant fresco art depicting nature, rituals, and bull-leaping [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Extensive maritime trade network reaching Egypt, the Levant, the Cyclades, and Anatolia [^2] [^3] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Minoan colony at Akrotiri on Thera (Santorini), preserved under volcanic ash [^3] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Religion
Minoan religion centered on a goddess figure associated with nature, snakes, and fertility, worshipped in palace shrines and open-air peak sanctuaries. Bull-leaping depicted in frescoes likely carried ritual significance. Unlike later Greek religion, the Minoans had no freestanding temples; worship occurred within palace complexes and natural settings. [^1] [^3]

## Writing Systems
- **Cretan hieroglyphs** (~2100–1700 BCE): Earliest Minoan script, used on seals and clay tablets @t[~2100 BCE..~1700 BCE]
- **Linear A** (~1800–1450 BCE): Administrative script used across Minoan sites; still undeciphered @t[~1800 BCE..~1450 BCE]
- **Linear B** (~1450–1200 BCE): Adapted by Mycenaeans from Linear A; deciphered by Michael Ventris in 1952; records an early form of Greek @t[~1450 BCE..~1200 BCE] [^4]

## Decline
The Minoan civilization declined after ~1450 BCE, possibly due to the Thera eruption (~1628 BCE), Mycenaean invasion, or a combination of factors [^2]. @t[..~1450 BCE] The Thera eruption predates the palace destructions by roughly 150–200 years, suggesting it weakened but did not immediately destroy Minoan civilization. Mycenaean Greeks subsequently dominated Crete, forming a hybrid culture that persisted until ~1100 BCE. @t[~1450 BCE..~1100 BCE]

---
[^1]: Evans, A. *The Palace of Minos at Knossos* (1921–1935)
[^2]: Driessen, J. & Macdonald, C. *The Troubled Island* (1997)
[^3]: Cartwright, M. "Minoan Civilization." *World History Encyclopedia* (2012). https://www.worldhistory.org/Minoan_Civilization/
[^4]: Ventris, M. & Chadwick, J. *Documents in Mycenaean Greek* (1956)---

## Review Queue

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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 16: "**Prepalatial** (~3000–1900 BCE): Early settlements; no palace centers yet ..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 17: "**Protopalatial (Old Palace)** (~1900–1700 BCE): First palace complexes bui..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "**Neopalatial (New Palace)** (~1700–1450 BCE): Peak of Minoan power; palace..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 19: "**Postpalatial** (~1450–1100 BCE): Mycenaean domination; hybrid Minoan-Myce..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 32: "**Cretan hieroglyphs** (~2100–1700 BCE): Earliest Minoan script, used on se..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 22: "Palace complexes at Knossos (up to 1,300 rooms) [^1]" - Evans source from 1921 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
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- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 24: "Vibrant fresco art depicting nature, rituals, and bull-leaping [^1]" - Evans source from 1921 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
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- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 25: "Extensive maritime trade network reaching Egypt, the Levant, the Cyclades, an..." - Driessen source from 1997 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
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  > 


id: 229f8a
repo_id: main
file_path: civilizations/mycenaean-civilization.md
file_hash: 06811c3d2c7ba2bd351014ad99caca1aa873f89c70e22f42141b57130b7c851d
title: Mycenaean Civilization
doc_type: civilization
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.657909746+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.800331515+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:229f8a -->
# Mycenaean Civilization

## Overview
The Mycenaean civilization (~1600–1100 BCE) was the first major civilization on mainland Greece, known for its warrior culture, palatial centers, and connection to the Homeric epics. @t[1600 BCE..1100 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Region: Mainland Greece, Crete (after ~1450 BCE), Aegean islands @t[1600 BCE..1100 BCE]
- Period: ~1600–1100 BCE @t[1600 BCE..1100 BCE]
- Major sites: Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylos, Thebes, Athens, Midea, Gla, Orchomenos, Argos, Sparta [^3]
- Writing: Linear B (deciphered by Michael Ventris in 1952 as early Greek; adapted from Minoan Linear A) [^1]
- Society: Warrior aristocracy ruled by *wanax* (king); palace economy with centralized storage and redistribution [^3]

## Achievements
- Massive Cyclopean fortification walls up to 13 m high and 8 m thick at Mycenae, Tiryns, and Thebes [^3]
- Lion Gate at Mycenae (~1250 BCE) @t[~1250 BCE]
- Tholos tombs including the Treasury of Atreus (~1500–1400 BCE) @t[~1500 BCE..~1400 BCE]
- Megaron hall — precursor to later Archaic and Classical Greek temples [^3]
- Extensive trade networks reaching Egypt, the Levant, Cyprus, Anatolia, Sicily, and Italy [^3]
- Shaft graves at Mycenae (Grave Circle A, discovered by Schliemann 1876) containing gold death masks and ceremonial weapons @t[~1550 BCE] [^3]
- Likely historical basis for the Trojan War tradition; possibly reflecting real Mycenaean–Hittite conflicts [^2]

## Religion and Culture
- Religious practices included animal sacrifice, communal feasting, libation pouring, and offerings [^3]
- Minoan religious symbols (double axe, horns of consecration) adopted and adapted [^3]
- Fresco art depicted warriors, chariots, bull-leaping, griffins, and battle scenes [^3]
- Earliest evidence of a cult to Dionysos dates to ~1350 BCE in Mycenaean culture @t[~1350 BCE] [^3]

## Decline
Collapsed in stages from ~1230 BCE to ~1100 BCE during the Bronze Age Collapse, leading to the Greek Dark Ages (~1100–800 BCE). @t[1100 BCE..800 BCE] Causes debated: Sea Peoples, internal conflict, natural disasters (earthquakes), regional climate change, systems collapse. [^3]

---
[^1]: Chadwick, J. *The Decipherment of Linear B* (Cambridge, 1958)
[^2]: Latacz, J. *Troy and Homer* (Oxford, 2004)
[^3]: Cartwright, M. "Mycenaean Civilization." *World History Encyclopedia*, 2 Oct 2019. https://www.worldhistory.org/Mycenaean_Civilization/
---

## Review Queue

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> Ancient history scholarship does not become outdated for events from ~1350 BCE. Cartwright (2019) is a valid scholarly reference for Mycenaean civilization.


id: 785e2c
repo_id: main
file_path: civilizations/persian-empire.md
file_hash: f7551abb99ff781bb6a699c559ef9d221ffc9c1621b9d0485ac59a75e537d1be
title: Persian Empire (Achaemenid)
doc_type: civilization
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.656909743+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.802522112+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:785e2c -->
# Persian Empire (Achaemenid)

## Overview
The Achaemenid Persian Empire (550–330 BCE) was the largest empire of the ancient world by territory, stretching from Egypt to the Indus Valley. At its peak under Darius I, it covered approximately 5.5 million km² and ruled an estimated 44% of the world's population. Founded by Cyrus the Great, it pioneered administrative innovations including satrapies, a postal system, and religious tolerance. @t[550 BCE..330 BCE] [^1]

## Key Facts
- Region: Iran, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Anatolia, Central Asia, Indus Valley @t[550 BCE..330 BCE]
- Period: 550–330 BCE @t[550 BCE..330 BCE]
- Capital cities: Pasargadae, Persepolis, Susa, Ecbatana
- Language: Old Persian (official), Aramaic (administrative lingua franca)
- Religion: Zoroastrianism (royal religion)
- Territorial extent: ~5.5 million km² at peak (under Darius I) [^3]
- Administrative divisions: ~20 satrapies [^1]

## Notable Rulers
- Cyrus the Great (559–530 BCE): Founded the empire, conquered Babylon (539 BCE) @t[559 BCE..530 BCE] [^1]
- Cambyses II (530–522 BCE): Conquered Egypt (525 BCE) @t[530 BCE..522 BCE] [^1]
- Darius I (522–486 BCE): Administrative reforms, built Persepolis, Royal Road; empire reached greatest extent @t[522 BCE..486 BCE] [^1]
- Xerxes I (486–465 BCE): Invaded Greece (480 BCE) @t[486 BCE..465 BCE] [^1]
- Artaxerxes I (465–424 BCE): Peace of Callias with Athens (~449 BCE) @t[465 BCE..424 BCE] [^1]
- Darius III (336–330 BCE): Defeated by Alexander the Great @t[336 BCE..330 BCE] [^1]

## Achievements
- Cyrus Cylinder (539 BCE): Royal proclamation allowing exiled peoples to return home and practice local religions; widely cited as an early precedent for religious tolerance, though modern scholars debate whether it constitutes a "human rights" document in the modern sense @t[=539 BCE] [^2]
- Royal Road: ~2,700 km highway from Susa to Sardis, enabling rapid communication via relay riders [^1]
- Satrapy system: ~20 provincial governors (satraps) reporting to the king, with standardized tribute and local autonomy [^1]
- Qanat irrigation technology: Underground aqueduct system enabling agriculture in arid regions [^1]
- Persepolis: Monumental ceremonial capital begun under Darius I (~518 BCE) @t[~518 BCE] [^1]
- Standardized coinage: Daric gold coin and siglos silver coin for imperial commerce [^1]

## Decline
Conquered by Alexander the Great; Darius III defeated at Gaugamela (331 BCE) @t[=331 BCE], Persepolis burned 330 BCE @t[=330 BCE]. The empire's administrative structure was largely preserved by Alexander and his Seleucid successors. [^1]

---
[^1]: Briant, P. *From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire* (2002)
[^2]: Kuhrt, A. "The Cyrus Cylinder and Achaemenid Imperial Policy" *JSOT* 25 (1983)
[^3]: Taagepera, R. "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D." *Social Science History* 3.3/4 (1979)
---


- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Region: Iran, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Anatolia, Central Asia, Indus Valley" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Briant (2002) [^1]; Kuhrt (1983) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Period: 550–330 BCE" - when was this true?
> 330 BCE event. Attested by Briant (2002) [^1]; Kuhrt (1983) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Capital cities: Pasargadae, Persepolis, Susa, Ecbatana" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Briant (2002) [^1]; Kuhrt (1983) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 13: "Language: Old Persian (official), Aramaic (administrative lingua franca)" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Briant (2002) [^1]; Kuhrt (1983) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 14: "Religion: Zoroastrianism (royal religion)" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Briant (2002) [^1]; Kuhrt (1983) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 17: "Cyrus the Great (559–530 BCE): Founded the empire, conquered Babylon (539 B..." - when was this true?
> 530 BCE event. Attested by Briant (2002) [^1]; Kuhrt (1983) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Darius I (522–486 BCE): Administrative reforms, built Persepolis, Royal Road" - when was this true?
> 486 BCE event. Attested by Briant (2002) [^1]; Kuhrt (1983) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Xerxes I (486–465 BCE): Invaded Greece (480 BCE)" - when was this true?
> 465 BCE event. Attested by Briant (2002) [^1]; Kuhrt (1983) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 20: "Darius III (336–330 BCE): Defeated by Alexander the Great" - when was this true?
> 330 BCE event. Attested by Briant (2002) [^1]; Kuhrt (1983) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 23: "Cyrus Cylinder: Early declaration of human rights and religious tolerance [^2]" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Briant (2002) [^1]; Kuhrt (1983) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 24: "Royal Road: ~2,700 km highway from Susa to Sardis" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Briant (2002) [^1]; Kuhrt (1983) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Satrapy system of provincial governance" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Briant (2002) [^1]; Kuhrt (1983) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 26: "Qanat irrigation technology" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Briant (2002) [^1]; Kuhrt (1983) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 27: "Persepolis: Monumental ceremonial capital" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Briant (2002) [^1]; Kuhrt (1983) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Region: Iran, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Anatolia, Central Asia, Indus Valley" - what is the source?
> Briant (2002) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Period: 550–330 BCE" - what is the source?
> Briant (2002) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Capital cities: Pasargadae, Persepolis, Susa, Ecbatana" - what is the source?
> Briant (2002) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 13: "Language: Old Persian (official), Aramaic (administrative lingua franca)" - what is the source?
> Briant (2002) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 14: "Religion: Zoroastrianism (royal religion)" - what is the source?
> Briant (2002) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Darius I (522–486 BCE): Administrative reforms, built Persepolis, Royal Road" - what is the source?
> Briant (2002) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 19: "Xerxes I (486–465 BCE): Invaded Greece (480 BCE)" - what is the source?
> Briant (2002) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 20: "Darius III (336–330 BCE): Defeated by Alexander the Great" - what is the source?
> Briant (2002) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 24: "Royal Road: ~2,700 km highway from Susa to Sardis" - what is the source?
> Briant (2002) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 25: "Satrapy system of provincial governance" - what is the source?
> Briant (2002) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 26: "Qanat irrigation technology" - what is the source?
> Briant (2002) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 27: "Persepolis: Monumental ceremonial capital" - what is the source?
> Briant (2002) [^1]
- [x] `@q[ambiguous]` Line 20: "Darius III (336–330 BCE): Defeated by Alexander the Great" - what does "III" mean in this context?
> III indicates the third ruler of that name in the dynasty.
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 17: "Cyrus the Great (559–530 BCE): Founded the empire, conquered Babylon (539 B..." - Briant source from 2002 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Yes, Briant (2002) scholarship on Cyrus the Great remains current and authoritative.
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 23: "Cyrus Cylinder: Early declaration of human rights and religious tolerance [^2]" - Kuhrt source from 1983 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Yes, Kuhrt (1983) scholarship on the Cyrus Cylinder remains current and authoritative.
---

## Review Queue

<!-- factbase:review -->
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Capital cities: Pasargadae, Persepolis, Susa, Ecbatana" - when was this true?
> True during the Achaemenid Persian Empire (550–330 BCE), with different capitals used at different periods. @t[550 BCE..330 BCE]
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Language: Old Persian (official), Aramaic (administrative lingua franca)" - when was this true?
> True during the Achaemenid Persian Empire (550–330 BCE). @t[550 BCE..330 BCE]
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Religion: Zoroastrianism (royal religion)" - when was this true?
> True during the Achaemenid Persian Empire (550–330 BCE). @t[550 BCE..330 BCE]
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 13: "Territorial extent: ~5.5 million km² at peak (under Darius I) [^3]" - when was this true?
> True at the peak of the Achaemenid Persian Empire under Darius I (~522–486 BCE). @t[~522 BCE..~486 BCE]
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 14: "Administrative divisions: ~20 satrapies [^1]" - when was this true?
> True during the Achaemenid Persian Empire (550–330 BCE). @t[550 BCE..330 BCE]
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 26: "Royal Road: ~2,700 km highway from Susa to Sardis, enabling rapid communicati..." - when was this true?
> True during the Achaemenid Persian Empire (550–330 BCE). @t[550 BCE..330 BCE]
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 27: "Satrapy system: ~20 provincial governors (satraps) reporting to the king, wit..." - when was this true?
> True during the Achaemenid Persian Empire (550–330 BCE). @t[550 BCE..330 BCE]
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 28: "Qanat irrigation technology: Underground aqueduct system enabling agriculture..." - when was this true?
> True during the Achaemenid Persian Empire (550–330 BCE). @t[550 BCE..330 BCE]
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 30: "Standardized coinage: Daric gold coin and siglos silver coin for imperial com..." - when was this true?
> True during the Achaemenid Persian Empire (550–330 BCE). @t[550 BCE..330 BCE]
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 42: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Region: Iran, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Anatolia, Cent..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 44: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Period: 550–330 BCE" - when was this true?" - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 46: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Capital cities: Pasargadae, Persepolis, Susa, Ec..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 48: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 13: "Language: Old Persian (official), Aramaic (admin..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 50: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 14: "Religion: Zoroastrianism (royal religion)" - whe..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 52: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 17: "Cyrus the Great (559–530 BCE): Founded the emp..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 54: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Darius I (522–486 BCE): Administrative reforms..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 56: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Xerxes I (486–465 BCE): Invaded Greece (480 BC..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 58: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 20: "Darius III (336–330 BCE): Defeated by Alexande..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 60: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 23: "Cyrus Cylinder: Early declaration of human right..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 62: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 24: "Royal Road: ~2,700 km highway from Susa to Sardi..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 64: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Satrapy system of provincial governance" - when ..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 66: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 26: "Qanat irrigation technology" - when was this true?" - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 68: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 27: "Persepolis: Monumental ceremonial capital" - whe..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 70: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Region: Iran, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Anatolia, Centr..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 72: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Period: 550–330 BCE" - what is the source?" - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 74: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Capital cities: Pasargadae, Persepolis, Susa, Ecb..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 76: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 13: "Language: Old Persian (official), Aramaic (admini..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 78: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 14: "Religion: Zoroastrianism (royal religion)" - what..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 80: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Darius I (522–486 BCE): Administrative reforms,..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 82: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 19: "Xerxes I (486–465 BCE): Invaded Greece (480 BCE..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 84: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 20: "Darius III (336–330 BCE): Defeated by Alexander..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 86: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 24: "Royal Road: ~2,700 km highway from Susa to Sardis..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 88: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 25: "Satrapy system of provincial governance" - what i..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 90: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 26: "Qanat irrigation technology" - what is the source?" - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 92: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 27: "Persepolis: Monumental ceremonial capital" - what..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 94: "[x] `@q[ambiguous]` Line 20: "Darius III (336–330 BCE): Defeated by Alexand..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 96: "[x] `@q[stale]` Line 17: "Cyrus the Great (559–530 BCE): Founded the empire..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 98: "[x] `@q[stale]` Line 23: "Cyrus Cylinder: Early declaration of human rights a..." - when was this true?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 8: "Region: Iran, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Anatolia, Central Asia, Indus Valley @t[550..." - what is the source?
> Need to verify whether this claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 9: "Period: 550–330 BCE @t[550 BCE..330 BCE]" - what is the source?
> Need to verify whether this claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Capital cities: Pasargadae, Persepolis, Susa, Ecbatana" - what is the source?
> Need to verify whether this claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Language: Old Persian (official), Aramaic (administrative lingua franca)" - what is the source?
> Need to verify whether this claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Religion: Zoroastrianism (royal religion)" - what is the source?
> Need to verify whether this claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 42: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Region: Iran, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Anatolia, Cent..." - what is the source?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 44: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Period: 550–330 BCE" - when was this true?" - what is the source?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 46: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Capital cities: Pasargadae, Persepolis, Susa, Ec..." - what is the source?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 48: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 13: "Language: Old Persian (official), Aramaic (admin..." - what is the source?
> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 50: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 14: "Religion: Zoroastrianism (royal religion)" - whe..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 52: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 17: "Cyrus the Great (559–530 BCE): Founded the emp..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 54: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Darius I (522–486 BCE): Administrative reforms..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 56: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Xerxes I (486–465 BCE): Invaded Greece (480 BC..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 58: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 20: "Darius III (336–330 BCE): Defeated by Alexande..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 62: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 24: "Royal Road: ~2,700 km highway from Susa to Sardi..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 64: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Satrapy system of provincial governance" - when ..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 66: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 26: "Qanat irrigation technology" - when was this true?" - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 68: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 27: "Persepolis: Monumental ceremonial capital" - whe..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 70: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Region: Iran, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Anatolia, Centr..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 72: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Period: 550–330 BCE" - what is the source?" - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 74: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Capital cities: Pasargadae, Persepolis, Susa, Ecb..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 76: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 13: "Language: Old Persian (official), Aramaic (admini..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 78: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 14: "Religion: Zoroastrianism (royal religion)" - what..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 80: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Darius I (522–486 BCE): Administrative reforms,..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 82: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 19: "Xerxes I (486–465 BCE): Invaded Greece (480 BCE..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 84: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 20: "Darius III (336–330 BCE): Defeated by Alexander..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 86: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 24: "Royal Road: ~2,700 km highway from Susa to Sardis..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 88: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 25: "Satrapy system of provincial governance" - what i..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 90: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 26: "Qanat irrigation technology" - what is the source?" - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 92: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 27: "Persepolis: Monumental ceremonial capital" - what..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 94: "[x] `@q[ambiguous]` Line 20: "Darius III (336–330 BCE): Defeated by Alexand..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 96: "[x] `@q[stale]` Line 17: "Cyrus the Great (559–530 BCE): Founded the empire..." - what is the source?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[ambiguous]` Line 56: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Xerxes I (486–465 BCE): Invaded Greece (480 BC..." - what does "BC" mean in this context?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 13: "Territorial extent: ~5.5 million km² at peak (under Darius I) [^3]" - Taagepera source from 1979 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 14: "Administrative divisions: ~20 satrapies [^1]" - Briant source from 2002 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 26: "Royal Road: ~2,700 km highway from Susa to Sardis, enabling rapid communicati..." - Briant source from 2002 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 27: "Satrapy system: ~20 provincial governors (satraps) reporting to the king, wit..." - Briant source from 2002 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 28: "Qanat irrigation technology: Underground aqueduct system enabling agriculture..." - Briant source from 2002 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 29: "Persepolis: Monumental ceremonial capital begun under Darius I (~518 BCE) @t[..." - Briant source from 2002 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 30: "Standardized coinage: Daric gold coin and siglos silver coin for imperial com..." - Briant source from 2002 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 60: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 23: "Cyrus Cylinder: Early declaration of human right..." - Kuhrt source from 1983 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 98: "[x] `@q[stale]` Line 23: "Cyrus Cylinder: Early declaration of human rights a..." - Kuhrt source from 1983 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
  > 


id: f760d3
repo_id: main
file_path: civilizations/phoenicia.md
file_hash: b1932c51321f15e40da17fb06a3d5cf2498e35eb1b913a8e1e8a81a1d2c0c2ae
title: Phoenicia
doc_type: civilization
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.655909739+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.804920256+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:f760d3 -->
# Phoenicia

## Overview
Phoenicia (~1500–300 BCE) was a maritime civilization of city-states along the coast of modern Lebanon. The Phoenicians were master sailors and traders who developed the alphabet that became the ancestor of Greek, Latin, and most modern alphabets. @t[~1500 BCE..300 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Region: Coastal Lebanon and parts of coastal Syria, with colonies across the Mediterranean
- Period: ~1500–300 BCE @t[~1500 BCE..300 BCE]
- Major cities: Tyre, Sidon, Byblos, Berytus (Beirut), Arwad
- Language: Phoenician (Northwest Semitic)
- Writing: Phoenician alphabet (~1050 BCE), ancestor of Greek and Latin alphabets @t[~1050 BCE] [^1]
- Government: Independent city-states, each ruled by a king with merchant councils; trade largely state-directed [^3]

## Origins
The Phoenicians were the direct successors of the Bronze Age Canaanites, continuing their cultural traditions after the Late Bronze Age collapse (~1200 BCE) without interruption. @t[~1200 BCE] They came to prominence in the mid-12th century BCE as most other major Mediterranean cultures declined. [^4]

## Achievements
- Developed the first widely-used phonetic alphabet ~1050 BCE @t[~1050 BCE] [^1]
- Founded Carthage (~814 BCE) and colonies across the western Mediterranean @t[~814 BCE] [^1]
- Pioneered long-distance maritime trade (tin from Britain, silver from Spain, copper from Cyprus, gold from West Africa) [^3]
- Exported cedar and fir timber to Egypt and Mesopotamia; cedar used in Solomon's Temple and the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus [^3]
- Produced Tyrian purple dye from murex snails (*Murex brandaris*); dye extracted from thousands of shellfish, driving the species near extinction along the Phoenician coast [^3]
- Pioneered transparent glass production from the 7th century BCE @t[~600 BCE]; major centers at Sidon, Tyre, and Sarepta [^3]
- Invented the bireme (two-banked oared warship) [^5]
- Circumnavigated Africa under commission from Pharaoh Necho II (~600 BCE) @t[~600 BCE] [^2]

## Religion
The Phoenician pantheon was polytheistic, with each city-state venerating its own patron deity. Major deities included Baal (storm and fertility god), Astarte (goddess of fertility, love, and war), and Melqart (patron god of Tyre, associated with the sea and trade). El was the supreme creator deity. Religious practices varied by city; Tyre's cult of Melqart spread throughout Phoenician colonies, including Carthage. [^4]

## Trade Network
By the 9th century BCE, the Phoenicians had established themselves as the Mediterranean's dominant trading power. @t[~900 BCE] Their cargo ships sailed to the Greek islands, southern Europe, the Atlantic coast of Africa, and Britain. Overland caravans connected them to Mesopotamia and Arabia. They acted as middlemen, transporting papyrus, textiles, metals, and spices between civilizations. Phoenician traders appear in sources ranging from Mesopotamian reliefs to Homer, Herodotus, and the Book of Ezekiel. [^3]

## Decline
Phoenician city-states fell under successive foreign rule: Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian, and finally Macedonian. Tyre was besieged and captured by Alexander the Great in 332 BCE. @t[=332 BCE] From the 7th century BCE onward, Phoenician trade dominance was increasingly eclipsed by Carthage, the Greeks, and eventually Rome. [^3]

---
[^1]: Markoe, G. *Phoenicians* (University of California Press, 2000)
[^2]: Herodotus, *Histories* 4.42
[^3]: Cartwright, M. "Trade in the Phoenician World." *World History Encyclopedia*, 2016. https://www.worldhistory.org/article/881/trade-in-the-phoenician-world/
[^4]: Sader, H. *The History and Archaeology of Phoenicia* (SBL Press, 2019)
[^5]: New World Encyclopedia, "Phoenician Civilization." https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Phoenician_Civilization
---

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id: c00c4a
repo_id: main
file_path: civilizations/roman-republic-and-empire.md
file_hash: 5aa1e0588aa69b41e6481dea554fc989cf9e0ec908650ccf69077dd345004f24
title: Roman Republic and Empire
doc_type: civilization
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.656909743+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.807151388+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:c00c4a -->
# Roman Republic and Empire

## Overview
Rome evolved from a small Italian city-state through a kingdom, republic (509–27 BCE), and empire (27 BCE – 476 CE in the West) that dominated the Mediterranean world. Roman law, engineering, and governance profoundly shaped Western civilization. @t[~753 BCE..476]

## Key Facts
- Region: Mediterranean basin, Western Europe, North Africa, Near East
- Kingdom: ~753–509 BCE @t[~753 BCE..509 BCE]
- Republic: 509–27 BCE @t[509 BCE..27 BCE]
- Empire: 27 BCE – 476 CE (Western), continued as Byzantine Empire in the East @t[27 BCE..476]
- Capital: Rome; later Constantinople (from 330 CE) @t[=0330]
- Language: Latin
- Writing: Latin alphabet
- Territory at peak: ~5,000,000 km² (under Trajan, 117 CE) @t[=0117] [^3]
- Population at peak: ~55–75 million (scholarly estimates) [^3]

## Major Periods
- Roman Kingdom (~753–509 BCE): Legendary founding by Romulus @t[~753 BCE..509 BCE]
- Early Republic (509–264 BCE): Expansion in Italy, Conflict of the Orders @t[509 BCE..264 BCE]
- Late Republic (264–27 BCE): Punic Wars, civil wars, Caesar's assassination (44 BCE) @t[264 BCE..27 BCE]
- Principate (27 BCE – 284 CE): Augustus through the Crisis of the Third Century @t[27 BCE..284]
- Dominate (284–476 CE): Diocletian's reforms through the fall of the Western Empire @t[284..0476]

## Government and Constitution
The Roman Republic operated under a "mixed constitution" praised by the Greek historian Polybius (*Histories*, Book VI, c. 150 BCE) as combining monarchic, aristocratic, and democratic elements [^4]:
- Consuls: Two annually elected magistrates holding executive and military authority (monarchic element)
- Senate: ~300 members drawn from former magistrates, controlling finances and foreign policy (aristocratic element)
- Assemblies: Popular legislative bodies (Comitia Centuriata, Comitia Tributa) holding formal legislative power (democratic element)

The Conflict of the Orders (494–287 BCE) gradually secured equal political rights for plebeian citizens, culminating in the Lex Hortensia (287 BCE), which made plebiscites binding on all Romans @t[494 BCE..287 BCE] [^5].

Under the Empire, the Senate retained formal prestige but real power shifted to the emperor (princeps). Diocletian's Dominate (284 CE) formalized autocratic rule, abandoning the republican fiction of the Principate @t[=0284].

## Achievements
- Roman law: Foundation of Western legal tradition [^1]
- Engineering: Aqueducts, roads (~400,000 km network), concrete, the Colosseum
- Pax Romana (~27 BCE – 180 CE): ~200 years of relative peace and prosperity @t[27 BCE..180]
- Latin language and literature: Virgil, Ovid, Cicero, Tacitus

## Fall of the Western Empire
The Western Roman Empire fell in 476 CE when Odoacer deposed Emperor Romulus Augustulus @t[=0476]. Contributing factors included barbarian invasions, economic decline, military overextension, and administrative fragmentation [^2].

---
[^1]: Jolowicz, H.F. *Historical Introduction to the Study of Roman Law* (Cambridge, 1972)
[^2]: Heather, P. *The Fall of the Roman Empire* (Oxford, 2006)
[^3]: Harper, K. *The Fate of Rome: Climate, Disease, and the End of an Empire* (Princeton University Press, 2017)
[^4]: Polybius. *Histories*, Book VI (c. 150 BCE). Trans. W.R. Paton (Loeb Classical Library, 1922)
[^5]: Cornell, T.J. *The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars* (Routledge, 1995)
---

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id: 6d7974
repo_id: main
file_path: civilizations/sumer.md
file_hash: 071d0ca98c52ce640ca2e26c95b53bfc438a3c751204c515c3345a6370f4c88f
title: Sumer
doc_type: civilization
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.655909739+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.809730940+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:6d7974 -->
# Sumer

## Overview
Sumer was the earliest known civilization in southern Mesopotamia (modern-day southern Iraq), emerging ~4500 BCE and flourishing during the 3rd millennium BCE. It is credited with foundational innovations including writing (cuneiform), urbanization, and codified law. @t[~4500 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Region: Southern Mesopotamia, between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Period: ~4500–1900 BCE @t[4500 BCE..1900 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Major cities: Ur, Uruk, Eridu, Lagash, Nippur, Kish <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Language: Sumerian (language isolate) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Writing system: Cuneiform, developed ~3400 BCE @t[~3400 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Government: City-states ruled by *lugal* (kings) and *ensi* (governors) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Major Periods
- Ubaid period (~5500–4000 BCE): Proto-urban settlements @t[5500 BCE..4000 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Uruk period (~4000–3100 BCE): First true cities, invention of writing @t[4000 BCE..3100 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Early Dynastic period (~2900–2350 BCE): Competing city-states @t[2900 BCE..2350 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Third Dynasty of Ur (~2112–2004 BCE): Final Sumerian renaissance under Ur-Nammu @t[2112 BCE..2004 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Achievements
- Invented cuneiform writing ~3400 BCE @t[~3400 BCE] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Built ziggurats as temple complexes <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Developed the sexagesimal (base-60) number system <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Created the earliest known legal code (Code of Ur-Nammu, ~2100 BCE) @t[~2100 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Established irrigation agriculture at scale, initially enabled by predictable tidal surges from the Persian Gulf before large-scale canal systems were required <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Produced the *Epic of Gilgamesh*, among the earliest literary works @t[~2100 BCE] [^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Decline
Sumer was absorbed by the Akkadian Empire under Sargon of Akkad ~2334 BCE, briefly revived under the Third Dynasty of Ur, and finally eclipsed by the rise of Babylon ~1900 BCE. @t[~2334 BCE]

## Environmental Foundations
Recent research (2025) has revised understanding of how Sumer's agriculture and urbanization emerged. Between ~7000–5000 years ago, the Persian Gulf extended further inland than today; twice-daily tidal surges carried freshwater deep into the lower Tigris and Euphrates, enabling early farmers to irrigate fields and date groves with short canals. As river-borne sediment built deltas that cut off tidal access, communities were forced to develop large-scale irrigation and flood control — the engineering that defined Sumer's urban florescence. This environmental pressure is also linked to the emergence of political consolidation and the flood myths central to Sumerian religion. [^3]

---
[^1]: Schmandt-Besserat, D. *Before Writing* (1992)
[^2]: George, A. *The Epic of Gilgamesh* (Penguin Classics, 2003)
[^3]: Giosan, L. & Goodman, R. "Morphodynamic Foundations of Sumer." *PLOS ONE* 20(8): e0329084 (2025). Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution / Lagash Archaeological Project (Penn Museum).


id: 06dbd9
repo_id: main
file_path: cultural-movements/greek-philosophy.md
file_hash: 5267948a8d98b464dc2476eaf7e29896bbda34096724b7bddb563a42d5b2ee4b
title: Greek Philosophy
doc_type: cultural-movement
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.658909750+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.813504625+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:06dbd9 -->
# Greek Philosophy

## Overview
Greek philosophy (~600 BCE – ~500 CE) laid the foundations of Western intellectual tradition, encompassing metaphysics, ethics, logic, political theory, and natural science. @t[~600 BCE..~500 CE]

## Key Facts
- Period: ~600 BCE (Thales) – ~529 CE (closure of Plato's Academy by Justinian) @t[~600 BCE..529 CE]
- Region: Greek world (Ionia, Athens, Alexandria, Rome)
- Major schools: Pre-Socratics, Pythagoreanism, Platonism, Aristotelianism, Cynicism, Stoicism, Epicureanism, Skepticism, Neoplatonism

## Major Figures
- Thales of Miletus (~624–546 BCE): First philosopher, proposed water as the fundamental substance @t[~624 BCE..~546 BCE] [^1]
- Pythagoras (~570–495 BCE): Founded Pythagoreanism; blended mathematics, mysticism, and ethics; taught metempsychosis (transmigration of souls); influenced Plato @t[~570 BCE..~495 BCE] [^3]
- Heraclitus (~535–475 BCE): "Everything flows" (*panta rhei*); argued that fire is the fundamental substance and that opposites are unified @t[~535 BCE..~475 BCE]
- Parmenides (~515–450 BCE): Founded the Eleatic school; argued that reality is singular, eternal, and unchanging; "being" cannot arise from or pass into "non-being" @t[~515 BCE..~450 BCE] [^1]
- Democritus (~460–370 BCE): With his teacher Leucippus, developed atomic theory; proposed all matter consists of indivisible atoms (*atomos*) moving through void; anticipated modern materialism @t[~460 BCE..~370 BCE] [^1]
- Pyrrho of Elis (~360–270 BCE): Founded Pyrrhonism (radical skepticism); advocated suspension of judgment (*epoché*) to achieve tranquility (*ataraxia*) @t[~360 BCE..~270 BCE] [^3]
- Diogenes of Sinope (~412–323 BCE): Leading Cynic philosopher; rejected social conventions and material wealth in favor of virtue and self-sufficiency @t[~412 BCE..~323 BCE] [^3]
- Socrates (~470–399 BCE): Socratic method, executed for impiety @t[~470 BCE..399 BCE]
- Plato (~428–348 BCE): Theory of Forms, founded the Academy @t[~428 BCE..~348 BCE]
- Aristotle (384–322 BCE): Logic, natural science, ethics, politics; founded the Lyceum @t[384 BCE..322 BCE]
- Epicurus (341–270 BCE): Atomism (derived from Democritus), pleasure as the highest good; founded "The Garden" school in Athens @t[341 BCE..270 BCE]
- Zeno of Citium (~334–262 BCE): Founded Stoicism @t[~334 BCE..~262 BCE] [^2]
- Plotinus (204/5–270 CE): Founded Neoplatonism; posited emanation from "the One" as the source of all reality; his *Enneads* (edited by Porphyry) remain the primary source for his thought @t[~204 CE..270 CE] [^3]

## Legacy
- Shaped Western philosophy, science, and political thought
- Transmitted to the Islamic world and medieval Europe
- Aristotle's works dominated European thought for ~2,000 years
- Neoplatonism profoundly influenced early Christian theology and the Renaissance

---
[^1]: Kirk, G.S. et al. *The Presocratic Philosophers* (Cambridge, 1983)
[^2]: Long, A.A. *Hellenistic Philosophy* (University of California Press, 1986)
[^3]: Zalta, E.N. (ed.) *Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy* (Stanford University, ongoing) — entries on Pythagoras, Pyrrho, Plotinus
---

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id: 517513
repo_id: main
file_path: cultural-movements/hellenism.md
file_hash: 8ab6911eb31ef1820b13f359371588951f1cd08cc0fb27c2fd457a89a8090cd5
title: Hellenism
doc_type: cultural-movement
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.658909750+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.815533881+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:517513 -->
# Hellenism

## Overview
Hellenism refers to the spread of Greek language, culture, art, and thought across the eastern Mediterranean and Near East following Alexander the Great's conquests. The Hellenistic period lasted from Alexander's death (323 BCE) until Roman absorption of the last successor kingdom with the death of Cleopatra VII (30 BCE). @t[323 BCE..30 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Period: 323–30 BCE (death of Alexander to death of Cleopatra VII) @t[323 BCE..30 BCE]
- Region: Eastern Mediterranean, Near East, Central Asia, Egypt
- Key kingdoms: Ptolemaic Egypt, Seleucid Empire, Antigonid Macedon, Pergamon
- Lingua franca: Koine Greek
- End marker: Battle of Actium (31 BCE) followed by Roman conquest of Egypt (30 BCE) [^3]

## Cultural Achievements
- Library of Alexandria and the Mouseion: by the 2nd century BCE, Alexandria had grown into a cosmopolitan metropolis of ~300,000 people [^3]
- Hellenistic sculpture: Venus de Milo, Winged Victory of Samothrace, Laocoön
- Science: Euclid, Archimedes, Eratosthenes, Hipparchus
- Philosophy: Stoicism, Epicureanism, Skepticism flourished [^1]

## Syncretism
- Greek and local cultures blended: Serapis (Egyptian-Greek deity), Gandhara art (Greek-Buddhist)
- Greek became the administrative and literary language from Egypt to Afghanistan
- Hellenistic Judaism: Septuagint translation, Philo of Alexandria [^2]

## Economy and Urban Development
- Alexander's Persian campaign injected vast quantities of silver bullion into the Greek monetary system, enabling standardized coinage across the Hellenistic world [^3]
- Major Hellenistic cities — Alexandria, Antioch, Pergamon — were planned on Hippodamian grid layouts with monumental public spaces blending Greek and local architectural traditions
- Long-distance trade networks connected the Mediterranean to Central Asia and India, facilitated by shared coinage standards and Koine Greek as a commercial language

## Legacy
- Roman culture was deeply Hellenized ("Captive Greece captured her rude conqueror" — Horace)
- Koine Greek became the language of the New Testament
- Hellenistic science and philosophy transmitted to the Islamic Golden Age

---
[^1]: Shipley, G. *The Greek World After Alexander* (Routledge, 2000)
[^2]: Green, P. *Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age* (1990)
[^3]: Erskine, A. (ed.) *A Companion to the Hellenistic World* (Blackwell, 2003)
---

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id: 9c16b6
repo_id: main
file_path: definitions/ancient-history-terms.md
file_hash: 589db6a227ba8e103cfef29945eaf2a268e1c7780f804cb5366df5d006141ee5
title: Definitions: Ancient History Terms
doc_type: definition
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.660909758+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.840922376+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:9c16b6 -->
# Definitions: Ancient History Terms

## Chronological Terms
- **BCE**: Before Common Era — equivalent to BC, used in secular academic contexts
- **CE**: Common Era — equivalent to AD, used in secular academic contexts
- **Chalcolithic / Copper Age**: Transitional period between the Neolithic and Bronze Age (~4500–3300 BCE in the Near East), characterized by early copper use before bronze technology developed
- **Bronze Age**: Period characterized by bronze metallurgy (~3300–1200 BCE in the Near East)
- **Late Bronze Age Collapse**: The widespread societal collapse (~1200 BCE) that destroyed or severely disrupted civilizations across the Eastern Mediterranean, including the Mycenaean Greeks, Hittites, and Ugarit; associated with the Sea Peoples invasions, drought, and systems failure
- **Iron Age**: Period following the Bronze Age, characterized by iron technology (~1200–~500 BCE) @t[~500 BCE]
- **Archaic Period**: Early phase of Greek civilization (~800–480 BCE) @t[800 BCE..480 BCE]
- **Classical Period**: Height of Greek civilization (~480–323 BCE) @t[480 BCE..323 BCE]
- **Hellenistic Period**: Post-Alexander era of Greek cultural diffusion (323–30 BCE) @t[323 BCE..30 BCE]
- **Late Antiquity**: Transitional period (~284–700 CE) between classical antiquity and the early Middle Ages, marked by the transformation of the Roman Empire, the rise of Christianity, and the migrations of Germanic peoples

## Political Terms
- **Polis**: Greek city-state, the fundamental political unit of ancient Greece
- **Acropolis**: The elevated citadel of a Greek city, typically housing temples and defensive structures; most famously the Acropolis of Athens
- **Agora**: The central public space of a Greek city-state, serving as marketplace, civic center, and place of assembly; the political and commercial heart of the polis
- **Forum**: The Roman equivalent of the agora; the central public square of a Roman city, used for commerce, politics, law, and public life. The Forum Romanum was the civic center of Rome
- **Consul**: The highest elected magistrate of the Roman Republic, serving a one-year term; two consuls held office simultaneously as a check on individual power. The office persisted in name into the Empire
- **Senate**: The governing council of Rome, composed of senior magistrates and former magistrates; wielded significant legislative and advisory power throughout the Republic and retained prestige into the Empire
- **Patrician**: Member of Rome's hereditary aristocratic class, holding exclusive rights to certain offices and priesthoods in the early Republic; gradually lost exclusive privileges through the Conflict of the Orders (~494–287 BCE)
- **Plebeian**: Member of Rome's common citizen class; over time gained political rights and access to magistracies through the Conflict of the Orders
- **Pharaoh**: The title of the ruler of ancient Egypt, combining political and religious authority as both king and divine intermediary between gods and humans
- **Satrapy**: Provincial administrative unit of the Persian Empire, governed by a satrap
- **Principate**: First phase of the Roman Empire (27 BCE–284 CE), maintaining republican facades @t[=27 BCE]
- **Dominate**: Later phase of the Roman Empire (284–476 CE), openly autocratic
- **Foederati**: Barbarian groups settled within the Roman Empire under treaty obligations

## Military Terms
- **Hoplite**: A heavily armed Greek infantry soldier, equipped with a round shield (aspis), spear, and bronze armor; the backbone of Greek armies from the Archaic through Hellenistic periods
- **Phalanx**: A dense infantry formation of hoplites fighting in close ranks with overlapping shields; the dominant Greek and Macedonian battle tactic, perfected by Philip II and Alexander the Great
- **Legion**: The primary tactical unit of the Roman army, typically comprising ~4,000–6,000 soldiers organized into cohorts and centuries; evolved significantly from the early Republic through the late Empire
- **Trireme**: The dominant warship of the classical Greek world, propelled by three banks of oars; decisive at the Battle of Salamis (480 BCE) @t[=480 BCE]

## Cultural Terms
- **Cuneiform**: Wedge-shaped writing system of Mesopotamia
- **Hieroglyphics**: Pictorial writing system of ancient Egypt
- **Linear A**: Undeciphered Minoan script
- **Linear B**: Deciphered Mycenaean Greek script
- **Koine Greek**: Common dialect of Greek used across the Hellenistic world
- **Syncretism**: The merging or blending of different religious, cultural, or philosophical traditions; widespread in the Hellenistic and Roman periods as Greek, Egyptian, Persian, and other traditions interacted
- **Amphora** (pl. amphorae): A two-handled ceramic storage vessel used throughout the ancient Mediterranean for transporting wine, olive oil, grain, and other commodities; a key artifact in trade route archaeology
- **Papyrus**: A writing material made from the papyrus plant (*Cyperus papyrus*), used extensively in ancient Egypt and across the Mediterranean world; the primary medium for Egyptian administrative and literary texts

## Naming Conventions
- **Roman numerals in ruler names** (I, II, III, IV, etc.): Ordinal suffixes used by modern historians to distinguish rulers sharing the same name (e.g., Tiglath-Pileser III = the third king named Tiglath-Pileser; Ramesses II = the second pharaoh named Ramesses). Not used by the rulers themselves in antiquity.

## Dating Conventions
- **Floruit (fl.)**: Latin for "flourished"; used when a person's birth and death dates are unknown but their period of activity can be established. Common in ancient history where biographical data is sparse (e.g., "Thales of Miletus, fl. ~585 BCE")
- **Terminus post quem (TPQ)**: Latin for "limit after which"; the earliest possible date for an event or artifact, established by the latest datable item found in the same archaeological context
- **Terminus ante quem (TAQ)**: Latin for "limit before which"; the latest possible date for an event or artifact, established by the earliest datable context that post-dates it
- **Regnal year**: A year counted from the accession of a ruler, used in ancient dating systems (e.g., "Year 3 of Ramesses II"). Ancient texts often use regnal years rather than absolute dates, requiring conversion to BCE/CE

## Archaeological Terms
- **Tell/Tel**: Artificial mound formed by accumulated remains of ancient settlements
- **Stele/Stela**: Upright stone slab used for commemorative or legal inscriptions
- **Ziggurat**: Stepped temple platform in Mesopotamian architecture
- **Necropolis**: Large ancient cemetery ("city of the dead")
- **In situ**: Latin for "in place"; describes an artifact or feature found in its original, undisturbed position, providing maximum contextual information for interpretation
- **Midden**: An ancient refuse deposit — accumulated food remains, broken pottery, ash, and other debris — that provides valuable evidence of diet, economy, and daily life at a site
- **Radiocarbon dating**: An absolute dating technique measuring the decay of carbon-14 in organic material; effective for organic remains up to ~50,000 years old, widely used to date ancient sites and artifacts. Also called carbon-14 dating or C-14 dating
- **Archaeological layer / stratum (pl. strata)**: A distinct horizontal deposit of soil, debris, or remains representing a single period of occupation. Sites with multiple occupation phases (e.g., Troy) are numbered sequentially using Roman numerals (I = earliest). The study of these layers is called stratigraphy.
- **Destruction layer**: An archaeological stratum showing evidence of violent or sudden destruction — burned debris, weapons, unburied remains — used to correlate a site's history with known historical events.
---

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