# query_embedding_cache

text_hash: 079fe581ff793001709a9548997cec6b8b7d617b20adf3af22c4b040a32535c3
model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-22 22:09:25
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:13
text:
Tin was scarce; long-distance trade networks developed to source it (Cornwall, Afghanistan, Southeast Asia) [^1]


text_hash: f86dfcc33ac5a9a5f76e691b7504d1df5929329c23e5a22e6bbb18c4001eb8b1
model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:21:31
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:21:31
text:
Aristotle (384–322 BCE): Logic, natural science, ethics, politics; founded the Lyceum @t[384 BCE..322 BCE]


text_hash: eca89e8f0ed0bc1a18387283c1379ecf8836dd4e801b3f645c3812af5ae89dee
model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:21:31
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:21:31
text:
Epicurus (341–270 BCE): Atomism (derived from Democritus), pleasure as the highest good; founded "The Garden" school in Athens @t[341 BCE..270 BCE]


text_hash: 824c5af045ee9eeeaf0f825b3eeb5f2295c855e05504f514dc21d4f4c716ef8e
model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:21:31
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:21:31
text:
Plotinus (204/5–270 CE): Founded Neoplatonism; posited emanation from "the One" as the source of all reality; his *Enneads* (edited by Porphyry) remain the primary source for his thought @t[~204 CE..270 CE] [^3]


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model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:21:36
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:21:36
text:
Hammurabi (~1792–1750 BCE): Unified Mesopotamia, issued the Code of Hammurabi @t[1792 BCE..1750 BCE] [^1]


text_hash: e5c2e2b737e9d84df9ea1f982628c1a8e61a9c980af90138c3590174b09fabac
model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:21:36
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:21:36
text:
Nabopolassar (626–605 BCE): Founded the Neo-Babylonian (Chaldean) Empire after the fall of Assyria @t[626 BCE..605 BCE] [^3]


text_hash: 0d20a1fe0802ad5fc1d30efb6924eb8ac2d8811a092725800411a7456e4f6143
model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:21:36
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:21:36
text:
Nebuchadnezzar II (605–562 BCE): Built the Ishtar Gate and Etemenanki ziggurat, destroyed the Temple of Jerusalem (586 BCE) @t[605 BCE..562 BCE] [^3]


text_hash: 83c1d3bc70c6f5111369bfb5bfe90980823001a5ff15716cc8eead2159f74329
model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:21:37
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:21:37
text:
Etemenanki: Great ziggurat of Babylon ("House of the Foundation of Heaven and Earth"), dedicated to Marduk; associated with the Tower of Babel legend; described by Herodotus as a massive stepped tower @t[~600 BCE] [^4]


text_hash: 6d8416aa8a48c5c9b09dea93ec71868004597032fdcc7b7d0da5bf9da262485b
model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:21:37
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:21:37
text:
Babylonian Captivity (597–539 BCE): Nebuchadnezzar II deported the population of Judah to Babylon following the destruction of the First Temple (586 BCE); ended when Cyrus the Great permitted the exiles to return @t[597 BCE..539 BCE] [^3]


text_hash: 1f519bedfdc149363d92f99a1368888e3b3ac79f8e3cac723a5b0e6023cc0a52
model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:21:38
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:21:38
text:
`@q[temporal]` Line 17: "Hammurabi (~1792–1750 BCE): Unified Mesopotamia, issued the Code of Hammura..." - when was this true?


text_hash: ebcd85cad76797f9f52b5da3fbc16914a99383da414638804a9331a60aea5a81
model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:21:38
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:21:38
text:
`@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Nebuchadnezzar II (605–562 BCE): Built the Ishtar Gate, destroyed the Templ..." - when was this true?


text_hash: 273f9b9b9ac251dc72a6c634dc4237f6429b2de6a47e535a827ddeadd35c8620
model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:21:39
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:21:39
text:
`@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Nabonidus (556–539 BCE): Last native king, defeated by Cyrus the Great" - when was this true?


text_hash: b8e3ac59d5d87d4956b15416e2901b30a33560919c4bceda86d12ca20fdccf22
model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:21:39
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:21:39
text:
`@q[temporal]` Line 22: "Code of Hammurabi: One of the earliest comprehensive legal codes (~1754 BCE)" - when was this true?


text_hash: cdac623f937fe9644d0aa34d2a34899f36c447149a911077bbf9ac1c9dbe0521
model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:21:39
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:21:39
text:
`@q[temporal]` Line 23: "Advanced astronomy and mathematics (predicted eclipses, developed algebra)" - when was this true?


text_hash: c0ae8947b7ad4b2aaf4e550bf244d9b4b686e2b368616a1be8a97ae921c64fc2
model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:21:39
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:21:39
text:
`@q[temporal]` Line 24: "Hanging Gardens of Babylon (one of the Seven Wonders, existence debated) [^2]" - when was this true?


text_hash: bef1a07a361c3c33da1e23d1f30dd57d428fcba7736e6cf128736de48efa8506
model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:21:41
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:21:41
text:
`@q[missing]` Line 18: "Nebuchadnezzar II (605–562 BCE): Built the Ishtar Gate, destroyed the Templ..." - what is the source?


text_hash: e23bc5e15bcf577e71980da63ea3ead2c94a7b053006108c0bd78555f2f09107
model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:21:41
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:21:41
text:
`@q[missing]` Line 19: "Nabonidus (556–539 BCE): Last native king, defeated by Cyrus the Great" - what is the source?


text_hash: c7134981e2d43f2b283f743f5570aa216d1c274b2ed27ec3557bd8ff227181e4
model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:21:41
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:21:41
text:
`@q[missing]` Line 22: "Code of Hammurabi: One of the earliest comprehensive legal codes (~1754 BCE)" - what is the source?


text_hash: f81141ddbae8b9111a8319df740d20f84ee86b75f793b12b079fc553e1a498d3
model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:21:41
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:21:41
text:
`@q[missing]` Line 23: "Advanced astronomy and mathematics (predicted eclipses, developed algebra)" - what is the source?


text_hash: f2f7acae5acc9e05cd1ab8401e2a0af68f8b761f6c42cb49f0d3202677c6ff93
model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:21:42
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:21:42
text:
`@q[ambiguous]` Line 18: "Nebuchadnezzar II (605–562 BCE): Built the Ishtar Gate, destroyed the Templ..." - what does "II" mean in this context?


text_hash: d28516b50fa291d77a5636a770ca58611f060d5baa40762c6a042a08a92e1e6e
model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:21:42
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:21:42
text:
`@q[stale]` Line 17: "Hammurabi (~1792–1750 BCE): Unified Mesopotamia, issued the Code of Hammura..." - Roth source from 1997 may be outdated, is this still accurate?


text_hash: a4f8e188545b499add3b8b901ccdb8fffd71a477f47d376c1e1e55a0a455af08
model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:21:42
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:21:42
text:
`@q[stale]` Line 24: "Hanging Gardens of Babylon (one of the Seven Wonders, existence debated) [^2]" - Dalley source from 2013 may be outdated, is this still accurate?


text_hash: 851ae6f41250bc494e92471c2e2cc538bd280786ce52dc21c60083c9b781a89b
model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:05
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:05
text:
Earliest surviving iron artifacts (4th millennium BCE, Egypt) were made from meteoritic iron-nickel, not smelted ore @t[~3000 BCE] [^1]


text_hash: 0aaee25bedd213182773e7e130239505f54bbda6b511704409aff3b3d2289947
model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:06
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:06
text:
Chinese independently developed cast iron by ~500 BCE (bloomery iron in the West until medieval period) @t[~500 BCE] [^2]


text_hash: 7a0d408c99af941423be64a20aadce7e30b89180edf2fce6ea78f340913f54ab
model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:06
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:06
text:
Sub-Saharan Africa: the Nok culture (present-day Nigeria) may have independently developed iron smelting ~800–1000 BCE; evidence from Termit (Niger) pushes possible dates to ~1500 BCE, though whether this was independent invention or diffusion remains debated @t[~1000 BCE..800 BCE] [^3]


text_hash: e68abc7251891de8c93f6cf0ed4e5d241d61e26166b3eaf9d7bbf7217a4529c9
model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:06
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:06
text:
South India developed wootz steel (crucible steel) by the mid-1st millennium BCE (~500–300 BCE) and was exporting it to China, Africa, the Middle East, and Europe by the 4th century BCE @t[~500 BCE..300 BCE] [^4]


text_hash: c49391b7362069a17b7ef1816ae64d7bb401115cde4e1a729767dac83932c5da
model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:12
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:12
text:
Composition: ~88% copper, ~12% tin (tin-bronze); earlier arsenical bronze used arsenic instead of tin @t[~3300 BCE..1200 BCE]


text_hash: 0aa2cde619e5b60d7e8eb5bb574519dbd375844a108b8a7d8c83e9836575db07
model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:13
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:13
text:
Arsenical bronze (copper + arsenic) preceded tin-bronze and was used widely in the early Bronze Age; tin-bronze eventually replaced it due to superior strength and non-toxic production [^3]


text_hash: f979b1fab64939f375c7e7bc9427dae17597e4ff1ebf4e9cf0c94ce1fe130dc7
model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:13
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:13
text:
Lost-wax casting (cire perdue) technique enabled complex shapes; earliest known examples date to ~4500 BCE (Varna Necropolis, Bulgaria), with widespread bronze use from ~3500 BCE in Mesopotamia @t[~4500 BCE] [^4]


text_hash: ad7d4e3d88021e9a8a83c6f89357e530cb964d766c6020a303c1ec8ed5faf877
model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:13
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:13
text:
Chinese bronze casting (Shang dynasty, ~1600 BCE) achieved exceptional sophistication, producing large ritual vessels via piece-mold casting rather than lost-wax @t[~1600 BCE..1046 BCE] [^2]


text_hash: 57f571e4e65becbf61063096ff44dc0d0bcdd0c08777a396901dd0d66d7058fa
model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:13
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:13
text:
Disruption of tin trade routes is considered a contributing factor to the Bronze Age Collapse (~1200 BCE), accelerating the transition to iron [^5]


text_hash: ec301364b372edf59981d0a7637feef5d112c4e5afa64acb2461b7f0aa292a52
model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:14
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:14
text:
Egypt's Middle Kingdom metallurgists intentionally elevated arsenic content in bronze alloys to enhance strength and durability, demonstrating sophisticated metallurgical knowledge @t[~2055 BCE..1650 BCE] [^6]


text_hash: 026cb68a867b5fb806b809ba205ed8e3a7d7f46578b28fbb4905d70c86ba1879
model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:19
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:19
text:
Writing: Linear B (deciphered by Michael Ventris in 1952 as early Greek; adapted from Minoan Linear A) [^1]


text_hash: df772d347cfa343237bd0868b098ab924ff3a5989978d0c9181514d48b8b7394
model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:19
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:19
text:
Society: Warrior aristocracy ruled by *wanax* (king); palace economy with centralized storage and redistribution [^3]


text_hash: 47cd4bc672cfdd9c3603481aa6e6e7aad1833f7661ad9161d82a02f4ba8aa75c
model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:20
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:20
text:
Massive Cyclopean fortification walls up to 13 m high and 8 m thick at Mycenae, Tiryns, and Thebes [^3]


text_hash: a9f08dbc0ec6c231aceb837408618938aff06c406b0ed1103d805245e0955390
model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:21
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:21
text:
Shaft graves at Mycenae (Grave Circle A, discovered by Schliemann 1876) containing gold death masks and ceremonial weapons @t[~1550 BCE] [^3]


text_hash: a1f12f9021dd28f49c4fbafe8349824ad71bca83e1b6e81f3d3d0955bf79ff1a
model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:21
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:21
text:
Likely historical basis for the Trojan War tradition; possibly reflecting real Mycenaean–Hittite conflicts [^2]


text_hash: 82c95e63a4809783341663fbf2615355363193df6e2f176502bd435fbdd047ad
model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:21
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:21
text:
Religious practices included animal sacrifice, communal feasting, libation pouring, and offerings [^3]


text_hash: 09ef816631d6db800225a510765d42a4095e4a9c95bc0cede7bb3eafd56fdff3
model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:29
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:29
text:
Region: Northern Mesopotamia, expanding across the Near East, parts of South Caucasus, North Africa, and the East Mediterranean @t[911 BCE..609 BCE]


text_hash: dd5d4bc8778adb914e2ab20135762ec5988738a586c1e30efa12f63c02d39e24
model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:29
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:29
text:
Adad-nirari II (911–891 BCE): His accession marks the start of the Neo-Assyrian period @t[911 BCE..891 BCE] [^3]


text_hash: ebcbd56a22bfd4f7edc4994317472230f2f5c774b5cda531487b76a864d64667
model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:30
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:30
text:
Tiglath-Pileser III (745–727 BCE): Administrative reforms, professional army, systematic deportation policy @t[745 BCE..727 BCE] [^2]


text_hash: 0695e88cd4b9b8945390edde0622c24ec0f067171b2bcd5723ddb2d8376d41eb
model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:30
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:30
text:
Esarhaddon (681–669 BCE): Conquered Egypt, reaching the empire's greatest territorial extent @t[681 BCE..669 BCE] [^3]


text_hash: fef1d74b7d82f28996d4b74ad1178762b91a34c824af7115ee07f286c598ed7a
model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:31
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:31
text:
Systematic deportation and resettlement policy: conquered populations relocated across the empire to prevent rebellion and integrate diverse groups; Tiglath-Pileser III institutionalized this as state policy [^4]


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model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:41
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:41
text:
Issued the Edict of Cyrus (~538 BCE): allowed exiled peoples, including the Jews, to return to their homelands and rebuild their temples @t[~538 BCE] [^2] [^4]


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model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:41
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:41
text:
Death attributed to battle with the Massagetae under their queen Tomyris (Herodotus, *Histories* I.214) [^3]


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model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:44
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:44
text:
Also known as: Sargon the Great; throne name Sharru-kin (Akkadian: "True King" or "Legitimate King") [^3]


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model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:45
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:45
text:
Conducted military campaigns from the Mediterranean to the Persian Gulf, including Mari, Ashur, Nineveh, and possibly Asia Minor [^3]


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model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:45
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:45
text:
Appointed his daughter Enheduanna (~2285–2250 BCE) as high priestess of Ur — she became the first named author in history [^2]


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model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:46
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:46
text:
Created the first known postal system: clay tablets sealed inside clay envelopes addressed to recipients [^3]


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model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:46
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:46
text:
Promoted the Akkadian language and cuneiform script as administrative tools across conquered territories [^4]


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model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:47
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:47
text:
Grandson Naram-Sin (r. ~2261–2224 BCE) brought the empire to its greatest extent @t[~2261 BCE..~2224 BCE] [^3]


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model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:47
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:47
text:
*The Legend of Sargon of Akkad* — his purported autobiography, preserved in the Library of Ashurbanipal at Nineveh; rediscovered in the 19th century CE [^3]


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model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:47
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:47
text:
`@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Title: King of Akkad, King of Kish, King of the Four Quarters" - when was this true?


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model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:48
last_used_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:48
text:
`@q[temporal]` Line 16: "Birth legend: Set adrift in a basket on the Euphrates as an infant (parallels..." - when was this true?


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model: amazon.nova-2-multimodal-embeddings-v1:0
created_at: 2026-02-23 03:22:48
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`@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Conducted military campaigns from the Mediterranean to the Persian Gulf" - when was this true?


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`@q[temporal]` Line 20: "Appointed his daughter Enheduanna as high priestess of Ur — she became the ..." - when was this true?


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`@q[missing]` Line 11: "Title: King of Akkad, King of Kish, King of the Four Quarters" - what is the source?


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`@q[missing]` Line 19: "Conducted military campaigns from the Mediterranean to the Persian Gulf" - what is the source?


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`@q[stale]` Line 16: "Birth legend: Set adrift in a basket on the Euphrates as an infant (parallels..." - Westenholz source from 1997 may be outdated, is this still accurate?


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`@q[stale]` Line 20: "Appointed his daughter Enheduanna as high priestess of Ur — she became the ..." - Hallo source from 1968 may be outdated, is this still accurate?


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created_at: 2026-02-23 03:23:09
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text:
Coptic: Final stage of the Egyptian language, using Greek alphabet with Demotic-derived letters (~300 CE onward)


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created_at: 2026-02-23 03:23:18
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text:
Aqua Claudia (52 CE): Begun by Caligula (38 CE), completed by Claudius; ~69 km long @t[38 CE..52 CE] [^3]


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text:
Aqueduct of Segovia (Spain, late 1st–early 2nd century CE): Still standing; date debated — Géza Alföldy's reading of the dedication plaque suggests ~98 CE (Domitian), while a 2016 coin find points to 112–116 CE (Trajan/Hadrian) @t[~98 CE..116 CE] [^4]


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Harbor of Sebastos, Caesarea Maritima (~22–10 BCE) @t[~22 BCE..~10 BCE]: Built by Herod the Great; pozzolana imported from the Bay of Naples [^5]


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Belligerents: Eastern Roman Empire vs. Gothic coalition (Thervingi Visigoths, Greuthungi/Ostrogoths, Alans)


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Roman losses: Approximately two-thirds of the army (~10,000–20,000 killed), including Valens [^1][^2]


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Valens attacked without waiting for Gratian's western reinforcements, reportedly driven by jealousy of his nephew's military successes [^1][^3]


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Fritigern sent peace envoys on the morning of battle — historians regard this as a stalling tactic to await the return of ~10,000 Greuthungi cavalry who were away foraging [^1][^3]


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Roman infantry, already exhausted from an eight-mile march in August heat without food or water, was surrounded and annihilated [^1]


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Demonstrated the vulnerability of Roman legions to heavy cavalry and the dangers of poor scouting and low morale [^2][^3]


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The Goths lacked siege equipment and could not take Adrianople itself; the Gothic War continued until 382 CE [^3]


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Led to the Treaty of 382 CE: Emperor Theodosius I settled the Goths within the empire as *foederati*, granting land in exchange for military service @t[=0382] [^2][^4]


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Alaric, a Visigoth and former Roman commander, sacked Rome in 410 CE — a downstream consequence of the foederati settlement @t[=0410] [^3]


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created_at: 2026-02-23 03:23:37
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Capital: Akkad (also known as Agade; location undiscovered, believed to lie near modern Baghdad on the western bank of the Euphrates, possibly between Sippar and Kish) [^1]


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text:
Sargon of Akkad (~2334–2279 BCE): Founder, conquered Sumerian city-states @t[~2334 BCE..~2279 BCE] [^1]


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Naram-Sin (~2254–2218 BCE): Grandson of Sargon, expanded empire, declared himself divine; first ruler to use the title "King of the Four Quarters (of the World)" @t[~2254 BCE..~2218 BCE] [^1] [^4]


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Standardized weights and measures across Mesopotamia, including the Akkad-gur metric system used to measure quantities of resources such as grain and flour [^4]


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text:
Maintained a sophisticated imperial bureaucracy: scribal schools trained state administrators, and appointed governors reported directly to the king [^4]


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Paul's missionary journeys (~46–60 CE) spread Christianity across the eastern Mediterranean @t[~46..~60] [^1]


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Persecutions under Nero (64 CE) @t[=64], Decius (250 CE) @t[=250], Diocletian (303–311 CE) @t[=303..=311]


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Christological debates: Nature of Christ debated from Council of Nicaea through Council of Chalcedon @t[=325..=451] [^3]


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Council of Chalcedon (451 CE): Defined Christ as having two natures (divine and human); caused the Chalcedonian Schism, splitting Oriental Orthodox churches @t[=451] [^3]


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Donatist controversy (4th–6th century CE): Schism over whether clergy moral failings invalidated sacraments; condemned at Council of Carthage @t[~311..~600] [^2]


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First Punic War (264–241 BCE): Fought over Sicily; Rome won naval supremacy @t[264 BCE..241 BCE] [^1]


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Second Punic War (218–201 BCE): Hannibal's invasion of Italy via the Alps; Rome ultimately prevailed @t[218 BCE..201 BCE]


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`@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Region: North Africa (modern Tunisia), with territories in western Mediterranean" - when was this true?


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`@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Founded by: Phoenician settlers from Tyre, traditionally by Queen Dido" - when was this true?


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`@q[temporal]` Line 14: "Government: Oligarchic republic with elected *suffetes* (magistrates)" - when was this true?


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`@q[temporal]` Line 17: "First Punic War (264–241 BCE): Fought over Sicily; Rome won naval supremacy..." - when was this true?


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`@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Second Punic War (218–201 BCE): Hannibal's invasion of Italy via the Alps; ..." - when was this true?


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`@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Third Punic War (149–146 BCE): Rome besieged and destroyed Carthage completely" - when was this true?


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`@q[temporal]` Line 23: "Advanced harbor engineering (circular military harbor at Carthage)" - when was this true?


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`@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Hannibal Barca: One of history's greatest military commanders [^2]" - when was this true?


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`@q[missing]` Line 10: "Region: North Africa (modern Tunisia), with territories in western Mediterranean" - what is the source?


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`@q[missing]` Line 12: "Founded by: Phoenician settlers from Tyre, traditionally by Queen Dido" - what is the source?


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`@q[missing]` Line 14: "Government: Oligarchic republic with elected *suffetes* (magistrates)" - what is the source?


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`@q[missing]` Line 18: "Second Punic War (218–201 BCE): Hannibal's invasion of Italy via the Alps; ..." - what is the source?


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`@q[missing]` Line 19: "Third Punic War (149–146 BCE): Rome besieged and destroyed Carthage completely" - what is the source?


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`@q[missing]` Line 23: "Advanced harbor engineering (circular military harbor at Carthage)" - what is the source?


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`@q[stale]` Line 17: "First Punic War (264–241 BCE): Fought over Sicily; Rome won naval supremacy..." - Goldsworthy source from 2003 may be outdated, is this still accurate?


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`@q[stale]` Line 25: "Hannibal Barca: One of history's greatest military commanders [^2]" - Lancel source from 1998 may be outdated, is this still accurate?


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The **Han dynasty** (China) and **Roman Empire** were the primary producers and consumers of silk, but direct contact between them was rare [^3]


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The **Parthian Empire** (~247 BCE – 224 CE) controlled the middle section of the route and acted as the principal intermediary between Rome and China, profiting from transit trade @t[~247 BCE..224 CE] [^4]


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The **Kushan Empire** (1st–3rd century CE) facilitated trade across Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent, connecting the overland and maritime routes @t[~30 CE..375 CE] [^3]


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**Sogdian merchants** from Samarkand dominated commercial activity along the route from roughly the 4th to 8th century CE, operating trading colonies as far east as China @t[~300 CE..~750 CE] [^5]


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Buddhism spread from India to China via the Silk Road, carried by monks and merchants from roughly the 1st century CE onward @t[~1 CE..~400 CE] [^1]


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Technologies transferred: Papermaking (China → West), glassmaking (West → East), and later gunpowder


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Diseases also spread along the routes, possibly including the Antonine Plague (165–180 CE) and Plague of Cyprian (249–262 CE) [^2]


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**Han dynasty** (206 BCE – 220 CE): Zhang Qian's first mission to the Western Regions in 138 BCE (dispatched by Emperor Wu) opened diplomatic contact; his second mission followed in 119 BCE. These missions catalyzed the formal opening of the route ~130–114 BCE. @t[206 BCE..220 CE] [^1]


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**Pax Romana / Pax Sinica** (~50 BCE – 250 CE): The four empires of Rome, Parthia, Kushan, and Han simultaneously stable, enabling peak ancient Silk Road trade @t[~50 BCE..~250 CE] [^4]


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Roman demand for Chinese silk was so great that Roman writers complained of gold draining eastward [^2]


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**Chalcolithic / Copper Age**: Transitional period between the Neolithic and Bronze Age (~4500–3300 BCE in the Near East), characterized by early copper use before bronze technology developed


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**Late Bronze Age Collapse**: The widespread societal collapse (~1200 BCE) that destroyed or severely disrupted civilizations across the Eastern Mediterranean, including the Mycenaean Greeks, Hittites, and Ugarit; associated with the Sea Peoples invasions, drought, and systems failure


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**Iron Age**: Period following the Bronze Age, characterized by iron technology (~1200–~500 BCE) @t[~500 BCE]


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**Hellenistic Period**: Post-Alexander era of Greek cultural diffusion (323–30 BCE) @t[323 BCE..30 BCE]


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**Late Antiquity**: Transitional period (~284–700 CE) between classical antiquity and the early Middle Ages, marked by the transformation of the Roman Empire, the rise of Christianity, and the migrations of Germanic peoples


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**Acropolis**: The elevated citadel of a Greek city, typically housing temples and defensive structures; most famously the Acropolis of Athens


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**Agora**: The central public space of a Greek city-state, serving as marketplace, civic center, and place of assembly; the political and commercial heart of the polis


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**Forum**: The Roman equivalent of the agora; the central public square of a Roman city, used for commerce, politics, law, and public life. The Forum Romanum was the civic center of Rome


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**Consul**: The highest elected magistrate of the Roman Republic, serving a one-year term; two consuls held office simultaneously as a check on individual power. The office persisted in name into the Empire


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**Senate**: The governing council of Rome, composed of senior magistrates and former magistrates; wielded significant legislative and advisory power throughout the Republic and retained prestige into the Empire


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**Patrician**: Member of Rome's hereditary aristocratic class, holding exclusive rights to certain offices and priesthoods in the early Republic; gradually lost exclusive privileges through the Conflict of the Orders (~494–287 BCE)


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**Plebeian**: Member of Rome's common citizen class; over time gained political rights and access to magistracies through the Conflict of the Orders


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**Pharaoh**: The title of the ruler of ancient Egypt, combining political and religious authority as both king and divine intermediary between gods and humans


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**Principate**: First phase of the Roman Empire (27 BCE–284 CE), maintaining republican facades @t[=27 BCE]


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**Hoplite**: A heavily armed Greek infantry soldier, equipped with a round shield (aspis), spear, and bronze armor; the backbone of Greek armies from the Archaic through Hellenistic periods


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**Phalanx**: A dense infantry formation of hoplites fighting in close ranks with overlapping shields; the dominant Greek and Macedonian battle tactic, perfected by Philip II and Alexander the Great


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**Legion**: The primary tactical unit of the Roman army, typically comprising ~4,000–6,000 soldiers organized into cohorts and centuries; evolved significantly from the early Republic through the late Empire


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**Trireme**: The dominant warship of the classical Greek world, propelled by three banks of oars; decisive at the Battle of Salamis (480 BCE) @t[=480 BCE]


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**Syncretism**: The merging or blending of different religious, cultural, or philosophical traditions; widespread in the Hellenistic and Roman periods as Greek, Egyptian, Persian, and other traditions interacted


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**Amphora** (pl. amphorae): A two-handled ceramic storage vessel used throughout the ancient Mediterranean for transporting wine, olive oil, grain, and other commodities; a key artifact in trade route archaeology


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**Papyrus**: A writing material made from the papyrus plant (*Cyperus papyrus*), used extensively in ancient Egypt and across the Mediterranean world; the primary medium for Egyptian administrative and literary texts


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**Roman numerals in ruler names** (I, II, III, IV, etc.): Ordinal suffixes used by modern historians to distinguish rulers sharing the same name (e.g., Tiglath-Pileser III = the third king named Tiglath-Pileser; Ramesses II = the second pharaoh named Ramesses). Not used by the rulers themselves in antiquity.


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**Floruit (fl.)**: Latin for "flourished"; used when a person's birth and death dates are unknown but their period of activity can be established. Common in ancient history where biographical data is sparse (e.g., "Thales of Miletus, fl. ~585 BCE")


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**Terminus post quem (TPQ)**: Latin for "limit after which"; the earliest possible date for an event or artifact, established by the latest datable item found in the same archaeological context


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**Terminus ante quem (TAQ)**: Latin for "limit before which"; the latest possible date for an event or artifact, established by the earliest datable context that post-dates it


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**Regnal year**: A year counted from the accession of a ruler, used in ancient dating systems (e.g., "Year 3 of Ramesses II"). Ancient texts often use regnal years rather than absolute dates, requiring conversion to BCE/CE


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**In situ**: Latin for "in place"; describes an artifact or feature found in its original, undisturbed position, providing maximum contextual information for interpretation


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**Midden**: An ancient refuse deposit — accumulated food remains, broken pottery, ash, and other debris — that provides valuable evidence of diet, economy, and daily life at a site


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**Radiocarbon dating**: An absolute dating technique measuring the decay of carbon-14 in organic material; effective for organic remains up to ~50,000 years old, widely used to date ancient sites and artifacts. Also called carbon-14 dating or C-14 dating


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**Archaeological layer / stratum (pl. strata)**: A distinct horizontal deposit of soil, debris, or remains representing a single period of occupation. Sites with multiple occupation phases (e.g., Troy) are numbered sequentially using Roman numerals (I = earliest). The study of these layers is called stratigraphy.


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**Destruction layer**: An archaeological stratum showing evidence of violent or sudden destruction — burned debris, weapons, unburied remains — used to correlate a site's history with known historical events.


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text:
Sacred texts: Pyramid Texts (~2400–2300 BCE), Coffin Texts (~2100–1650 BCE), Book of the Dead (~1550 BCE onward) [^4]


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**Heliopolitan Ennead**: Nine primordial deities centered on Atum/Ra at Heliopolis — Atum, Shu, Tefnut, Geb, Nut, Osiris, Isis, Set, and Nephthys


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**Hermopolitan Ogdoad**: Eight deities representing primordial chaos at Hermopolis — four pairs embodying water (Nun/Naunet), infinity (Heh/Hauhet), darkness (Kek/Kauket), and hidden forces (Amun/Amaunet)


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**Memphite Theology**: Ptah as creator-god who brought the world into being through thought and speech (*Shabaka Stone*, ~700 BCE, copying an older text)


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**Heliopolis** (near modern Cairo): Center of solar worship; temple of Ra/Atum; origin of the Ennead tradition


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**Thebes** (modern Luxor): Center of Amun worship; site of Karnak and Luxor temples; dominant from the Middle Kingdom onward


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Children with Devi: son Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitra, both of whom led Buddhist missions to Sri Lanka [^3]


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Second queen: Karuvaki (also Kaurwaki); their son Tivala (also Tivara) is the only child of Ashoka mentioned by name in his own inscriptions — in the Queen's Edict [^4]


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Son Kunala (by another queen) was blinded by his stepmother Tishyaraksha and thus excluded from succession; his own son Samprati later ruled part of the empire [^4]


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Governed using the *Arthashastra* (political treatise attributed to Chanakya, Chandragupta's prime minister) as his administrative framework [^3]


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Conquered Kalinga (~261 BCE), a kingdom on the east coast corresponding to modern Odisha and northern Andhra Pradesh, with devastating casualties (~100,000 killed, 150,000 deported per his own edicts) @t[~261 BCE]


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Written in Prakrit, Greek, and Aramaic; two inscriptions were found at Kandahar (Chehel Zina, Afghanistan): the Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription (~260 BCE) in Greek and Aramaic (discovered 1957), and a separate Greek-only inscription (discovered 1963) @t[~260 BCE] [^2] [^5]


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Undertook a pilgrimage to Buddhist sacred sites including Lumbini (birthplace of the Buddha), where he erected a pillar inscription (~249 BCE) exempting the village from taxes @t[~249 BCE] [^4]


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At its height stretched from modern-day Iran and Afghanistan in the west to Bangladesh in the east [^3]


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Ashoka was immediately succeeded by his grandson Dasharatha Maurya (~232–224 BCE), as his son Kunala had been blinded and was ineligible; the empire began fragmenting under Dasharatha and subsequent weaker rulers [^4]


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The last Maurya emperor, Brihadratha, was assassinated by his general Pushyamitra Shunga in 185 BCE, who founded the Shunga dynasty, ending Maurya rule [^4]


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Family: Son of Xanthippus (general, hero of the Persian Wars) and Agariste (niece of Cleisthenes; Alcmaeonidae clan) [^1]


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Music teacher: Damon of Oa (though Aristotle names Pythoclides); Damon was later ostracized partly due to his association with Pericles [^1]


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As a young man (~472 BCE), funded the production of Aeschylus's *The Persae* as choregos @t[~472 BCE] [^1]


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Entered politics around 470 BCE; initially introverted, he avoided public appearances in his youth @t[~470 BCE] [^4]


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Aligned with Ephialtes to curtail the powers of the Areopagus (~462–461 BCE), marking the start of radical Athenian democracy @t[462 BCE..461 BCE] [^2]


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Led the prosecution of Cimon in 463 BCE on charges of corruption in his dealings with Macedon; Cimon was acquitted but ostracized in 461 BCE, clearing the path for Pericles' dominance @t[=463 BCE] [^2]


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The period of his leadership (~461–429 BCE) is known as the "Age of Pericles" @t[461 BCE..429 BCE] [^2]


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In 444 BCE, Thucydides son of Melesias (not the historian) led the conservative faction against Pericles, accusing him of misusing Delian League funds for the building program; Pericles prevailed and Thucydides was ostracized in 442 BCE @t[=442 BCE] [^1]


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text:
Expanded Athenian democracy: Introduced pay for jury service, opening participation to poorer citizens [^1]


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Citizenship law (451 BCE): Restricted Athenian citizenship to those born of two Athenian citizen parents @t[=451 BCE] [^1]


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Congress Decree (449 BCE): Invited all Greek city-states to a pan-Hellenic congress to discuss rebuilding temples destroyed by Persia; Sparta refused to attend, stalling the initiative @t[=449 BCE] [^4]


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text:
Commissioned the Parthenon, Propylaea (monumental gateway to the Acropolis, begun 437 BCE), and other Acropolis buildings (~447–432 BCE), with sculptor Phidias overseeing the artistic program @t[447 BCE..432 BCE] [^1]


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Also built the Odeon of Pericles (~446 BCE), a large roofed music hall near the Acropolis used for musical contests @t[~446 BCE] [^4]


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text:
Founded the Panhellenic colony of Thurii in southern Italy (444 BCE) as a cleruch settlement @t[=444 BCE] [^4]


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text:
Companion: Aspasia of Miletus (~470–410 BCE), an intellectual and rhetorician; could not legally marry her under his own citizenship law [^1]


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Had two legitimate sons, Paralus and Xanthippus, by his first wife; both died in the plague of 429 BCE [^1]


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text:
Athens fought Sparta and its allies (primarily Corinth) for supremacy in Greece @t[460 BCE..446 BCE] [^2]


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Pericles commanded Athenian forces in multiple engagements; neither side gained a decisive advantage [^4]


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Cimon, returning from exile in 451 BCE, brokered a truce between Athens and Sparta on Pericles' behalf @t[=451 BCE] [^4]


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The war concluded with the Thirty Years' Peace (446/445 BCE), in which Athens relinquished most of its mainland possessions acquired since 460 BCE, and both sides agreed not to recruit from the other's allies @t[=446 BCE] [^2]


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Just before the Peloponnesian War, Pericles and his associates faced a series of judicial attacks aimed at undermining him politically [^1]


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Phidias, overseer of the Acropolis building program, was accused of embezzling gold meant for the statue of Athena Parthenos and of impiety (~438 BCE); he reportedly died in prison, though this is disputed @t[~438 BCE] [^1]


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Aspasia was charged with impiety (asebeia); Pericles reportedly wept in court to secure her acquittal [^1]


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Anaxagoras, Pericles' philosophical mentor, was also attacked by the assembly for his religious views [^1]


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These prosecutions are widely interpreted as politically motivated attacks on Pericles through his associates [^1]


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Pericles proposed the Megarian Decree (~432 BCE), a trade embargo excluding Megarian merchants from Athenian markets and ports; Sparta demanded its retraction as a condition for peace @t[~432 BCE] [^2]


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text:
His defensive strategy against Sparta (retreating behind the Long Walls) led to overcrowding in Athens [^2]


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text:
Plague of Athens (430–426 BCE) killed ~25% of the population, including Pericles himself in 429 BCE @t[430 BCE..426 BCE] [^2]


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Was tried and fined by the Athenians during the war, then re-elected strategos shortly before his death [^2]


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text:
The sculptor Kresilas created an idealized portrait bust of Pericles (~425 BCE), widely copied in antiquity @t[~425 BCE] [^4]


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Thucydides argued that Pericles' successors, seeking popularity over effectiveness, led Athens to ruin — culminating in defeat by Sparta in 404 BCE [^2]


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text:
Government: Independent city-states, each ruled by a king with merchant councils; trade largely state-directed [^3]


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text:
Pioneered long-distance maritime trade (tin from Britain, silver from Spain, copper from Cyprus, gold from West Africa) [^3]


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Exported cedar and fir timber to Egypt and Mesopotamia; cedar used in Solomon's Temple and the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus [^3]


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Produced Tyrian purple dye from murex snails (*Murex brandaris*); dye extracted from thousands of shellfish, driving the species near extinction along the Phoenician coast [^3]


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Pioneered transparent glass production from the 7th century BCE @t[~600 BCE]; major centers at Sidon, Tyre, and Sarepta [^3]


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text:
Battle of Philippi (42 BCE): Triumvirate defeated Caesar's assassins Brutus and Cassius @t[=42 BCE] [^5]


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text:
Senate granted him the title Augustus (27 BCE), marking the start of the Principate @t[=27 BCE] [^1]


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text:
Building program: "Found Rome a city of brick and left it a city of marble" [^2]; claimed to have restored or built 82 temples in a single year in his *Res Gestae Divi Augusti* [^5]


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Revived traditional Roman religion: restored temples, reintroduced festivals (Lupercalia, Ludi Saeculares in 17 BCE) @t[=17 BCE] [^4]


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Social and moral reforms: *Lex Julia* legislation incentivized marriage and childbearing, penalized adultery as a civil crime [^4]


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Held *tribunicia potestas* (tribunician power) annually from 23 BCE, granting veto power over all legislation and personal sacrosanctity; alongside *Imperium Maius*, this formed the two constitutional pillars of the Principate @t[=23 BCE] [^5]


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text:
Battle of Teutoburg Forest (9 CE): Germanic tribes under Arminius ambushed and annihilated three Roman legions (XVII, XVIII, XIX) under Publius Quinctilius Varus, halting Roman expansion east of the Rhine; Suetonius records Augustus crying out "Varus, give me back my legions!" @t[=0009] [^1]


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Key general and second-in-command: Marcus Agrippa commanded the fleet at Actium and oversaw major building projects [^5]


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Roman Forum: Political and commercial center of the Republic and Empire; public use from ~500 BCE @t[~509 BCE..]


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Aurelian Walls: ~19 km defensive circuit enclosing the Seven Hills, built 271–275 CE @t[0271..0275] [^2]


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Location: Thermopylae pass ("Hot Gates"), central Greece — a 15-metre-wide coastal gap with cliffs on one side and sea on the other


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Greek force of ~6,000–7,000 men held the narrow pass, including 300 Spartans, 700 Thespians, 1,000 Phokians, 1,000 Lokrians, 400 Thebans, 400 Corinthians, 2,120 Arcadians, and others [^3]


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Greeks exploited the narrow terrain to negate Persian numerical advantage; Persian archers' light arrows were largely ineffective against bronze-armoured hoplites [^3]


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Xerxes first waited four days expecting the Greeks to flee; Leonidas' reply to a demand to lay down arms was *"Molōn labe"* ("Come and take them") [^3]


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On days one and two, even the elite Persian Immortals (10,000-strong) failed to break the Greek line [^3]


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Betrayed by Ephialtes of Trachis, who revealed the Anopaia mountain path to outflank the Greeks [^1][^3]


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Phokian troops guarding the Anopaia path withdrew to higher ground when the Immortals attacked, allowing the Persians to pass [^3]


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Leonidas dismissed most allies; ~300 Spartans, ~700 Thespians, and ~400 Thebans fought to the death in a rearguard action [^1]


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Archaeological excavations at Kolonos Hill (the traditional last-stand site) have uncovered spearheads, arrowheads, armor fragments, and evidence of mass cremations consistent with ancient Greek funerary practices [^4]


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Epitaph by Simonides of Ceos: "Go tell the Spartans, stranger passing by, that here obedient to their laws we lie" [^2]


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Bought time for the Greek fleet at Artemisium and the subsequent victory at Salamis (September 480 BCE) @t[=480 BCE]


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Thermopylae was again the site of battle in 279 BCE (Greeks vs. Gauls), 191 BCE (Romans defeated Antiochus III), and 1941 CE (Allied forces vs. Germany) [^3]


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Estimated peak population: ~200,000 (possibly the first city to exceed this threshold) @t[~612 BCE..~320 BCE] [^3]


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Ishtar Gate: Glazed brick gate decorated with dragons and bulls, built under Nebuchadnezzar II (~575 BCE) @t[~575 BCE] [^1]


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text:
Etemenanki: Ziggurat dedicated to Marduk ("Temple of the Foundation of Heaven and Earth"), possibly the inspiration for the Tower of Babel; destroyed by Sennacherib in 689 BCE @t[=689 BCE], rebuilt by Nebuchadnezzar II @t[604 BCE..562 BCE] [^3]


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text:
Hanging Gardens: One of the Seven Wonders (existence and location debated; Dalley argues they were actually at Nineveh) [^2]


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text:
Excavated by Robert Koldewey (1899–1917) for the German Oriental Society — first scientific excavation @t[1899 CE..1917 CE] [^1]


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text:
Saddam Hussein reconstruction project (1978–2003): rebuilt structures atop ruins, inscribed bricks with his name @t[1978 CE..2003 CE] [^3]


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Site suffered damage during the Iraq War (2003–2004) from US military base construction; British Museum report documented crushing of 2,600-year-old brick pavements @t[2003 CE..2004 CE] [^3]


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2024 Iraqi excavation (Al-Fayadiya district, site 19/3): 478 artifacts recovered including cuneiform tablets, cylinder seals, and ceramic vessels; Old Babylonian and Sasanian strata identified @t[2024 CE] [^4]


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Forces: Egyptian ~20,000 men and ~2,000 chariots; Hittite forces claimed by Egyptian sources at 37,000 men and 3,500 chariots (figures likely exaggerated) [^1]


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Ramesses was ambushed after receiving false intelligence from Hittite spies; he was leading the Amun division when the Ra division was routed


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**Poem of Pentaur** — a poetic glorification of Ramesses' personal heroism, known from eight separate inscriptions [^2]


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Led to the Treaty of Kadesh (~1259 BCE), the earliest known international peace treaty @t[~1259 BCE] [^3]


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Ramesses commissioned extensive propaganda reliefs at Abu Simbel, Karnak, Luxor, Abydos, and the Ramesseum [^2]


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`@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Location: Kadesh, on the Orontes River (modern Tell Nebi Mend, Syria)" - when was this true?


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`@q[temporal]` Line 13: "Commanders: Ramesses II (Egypt), Muwatalli II (Hittites)" - when was this true?


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`@q[temporal]` Line 14: "Result: Tactically indecisive; both sides claimed victory [^1]" - when was this true?


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`@q[temporal]` Line 17: "Largest chariot battle in history (~5,000–6,000 chariots total)" - when was this true?


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`@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Ramesses was ambushed after receiving false intelligence from Hittite spies" - when was this true?


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`@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Egyptian camp nearly overrun before reinforcements arrived" - when was this true?


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`@q[temporal]` Line 23: "Led to the Treaty of Kadesh (~1259 BCE), the earliest known international pea..." - when was this true?


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`@q[temporal]` Line 24: "Egypt retained influence in Canaan; Hittites kept Syria" - when was this true?


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`@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Ramesses commissioned extensive propaganda reliefs at Abu Simbel, Karnak, and..." - when was this true?


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`@q[missing]` Line 11: "Location: Kadesh, on the Orontes River (modern Tell Nebi Mend, Syria)" - what is the source?


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`@q[missing]` Line 13: "Commanders: Ramesses II (Egypt), Muwatalli II (Hittites)" - what is the source?


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`@q[missing]` Line 17: "Largest chariot battle in history (~5,000–6,000 chariots total)" - what is the source?


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`@q[missing]` Line 18: "Ramesses was ambushed after receiving false intelligence from Hittite spies" - what is the source?


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`@q[missing]` Line 19: "Egyptian camp nearly overrun before reinforcements arrived" - what is the source?


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`@q[missing]` Line 23: "Led to the Treaty of Kadesh (~1259 BCE), the earliest known international pea..." - what is the source?


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`@q[missing]` Line 24: "Egypt retained influence in Canaan; Hittites kept Syria" - what is the source?


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text:
`@q[ambiguous]` Line 13: "Commanders: Ramesses II (Egypt), Muwatalli II (Hittites)" - what does "II" mean in this context?


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text:
`@q[stale]` Line 14: "Result: Tactically indecisive; both sides claimed victory [^1]" - Spalinger source from 2005 may be outdated, is this still accurate?


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text:
`@q[stale]` Line 25: "Ramesses commissioned extensive propaganda reliefs at Abu Simbel, Karnak, and..." - Kitchen source from 1982 may be outdated, is this still accurate?


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created_at: 2026-02-23 03:27:15
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text:
Writing: Cretan hieroglyphs, Linear A (undeciphered); succeeded by Linear B (Mycenaean, deciphered 1952)


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text:
**Protopalatial (Old Palace)** (~1900–1700 BCE): First palace complexes built at Knossos, Phaistos, and Malia @t[~1900 BCE..~1700 BCE]


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text:
**Neopalatial (New Palace)** (~1700–1450 BCE): Peak of Minoan power; palaces rebuilt after earthquake destruction @t[~1700 BCE..~1450 BCE]


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created_at: 2026-02-23 03:27:16
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text:
**Postpalatial** (~1450–1100 BCE): Mycenaean domination; hybrid Minoan-Mycenaean culture persists @t[~1450 BCE..~1100 BCE]


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text:
**Cretan hieroglyphs** (~2100–1700 BCE): Earliest Minoan script, used on seals and clay tablets @t[~2100 BCE..~1700 BCE]


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**Linear A** (~1800–1450 BCE): Administrative script used across Minoan sites; still undeciphered @t[~1800 BCE..~1450 BCE]


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**Linear B** (~1450–1200 BCE): Adapted by Mycenaeans from Linear A; deciphered by Michael Ventris in 1952; records an early form of Greek @t[~1450 BCE..~1200 BCE] [^4]


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In Roman times, the main route ran south from the Baltic coast (modern Lithuania) through Poland, through the land of the Boii (modern Czech Republic/Slovakia), to Aquileia at the Adriatic [^3]


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Connected to Mediterranean trade networks at the Adriatic, and onward to the Silk Road via the Black Sea [^1] [^3]


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Roman military fortifications were built along the route to protect merchants from Germanic raids [^3]


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Baltic amber found in Mycenaean shaft graves @t[~1600 BCE] and in Tutankhamun's breast ornament @t[~1330 BCE]; spectroscopic analysis confirmed Baltic origin [^3]


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Amber from the Amber Road reached the Royal Hypogeum of Qatna (Syria) in unparalleled quantities for the ancient Near East @t[~1500 BCE..~1200 BCE] [^3]


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The Amber Road likely stimulated the Nordic Bronze Age, bringing Mediterranean influences northward [^3]


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World's largest archaeological amber find (~1,240–1,760 kg) discovered at Partynice near Wrocław, dating to the 1st century BCE @t[~100 BCE] [^3]


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War indemnity of 15,000 Euboic talents of silver: 500 paid immediately, 2,500 on Senate ratification, then 1,000 talents annually for 12 years [^1]


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Territory redistributed to Rome's allies: Pergamon received Lydia, Phrygia, Mysia, Pisidia, and Pamphylia; Rhodes received Caria and Lycia [^1]


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Established *philia* (amity) between Rome and the Seleucid dynasty, governing relations for the following half-century [^4]


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text:
Titles: King of Macedon, Hegemon of the Hellenic League, Pharaoh of Egypt, Great King of Persia [^3]


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Destruction of Thebes (335 BCE): Suppressed Greek revolt; assumed leadership of the League of Corinth @t[=335 BCE] [^1]


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Commanders: Callimachus (Athenian polemarch, overall command; killed in battle), Miltiades (Athenian strategos, tactical command), Arimnestos (Plataea); Datis and Artaphernes (Persia)


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Greeks thinned their center to four ranks deep and strengthened the flanks to match the Persian line width (~1,500 m front)


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The Persian cavalry was conspicuously absent from the engagement — possibly embarked for a flanking move on Athens, or unable to deploy effectively on the terrain [^3]


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Greek wings enveloped the Persian center in a double envelopment; the Persian flanks broke and fled toward the ships across marshy ground


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Fierce fighting at the ships; Callimachus was killed in this phase; the Greeks captured seven Persian vessels [^3]


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After the battle, the Persian fleet sailed around Cape Sounion toward Athens; the Greek army force-marched back and arrived in time to deter a landing — the Persians withdrew to Asia [^3]


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~2,000 Spartans arrived after the battle; delayed by the sacred Karneia festival and possibly a Messenian revolt [^1][^3]


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The Athenian dead were cremated and buried on the battlefield in the *soros* (burial mound), still visible today; a commemorative trophy column was erected (fragments in the Archaeological Museum of Marathon) [^3]


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Victory commemorated at Delphi with a bronze sculptural group by Phidias (including Apollo, Artemis, and Miltiades) and a Treasury of the Athenians; a colossal bronze Athena was erected on the Athenian Acropolis [^3]


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**Date**: The conventional date of 12 September 490 BCE (established by August Boeckh using the Athenian calendar) has been challenged. Olson et al. (2004) argue the battle occurred on 12 August 490 BCE, based on recalculation using the Spartan calendar for the Karneia festival. [^4]


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**Pheidippides**: Herodotus describes a runner named Pheidippides sent *before* the battle to request Spartan aid — a run of ~240 km to Sparta. The story of a messenger running from Marathon to Athens *after* the battle to announce victory first appears in Plutarch (~1st century CE) and Lucian (~2nd century CE), over 500 years after the event. The modern marathon race (42.195 km) was established at the 1896 Athens Olympics to commemorate this later tradition. [^1][^2][^3]


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Boosted Athenian democratic identity and confidence; veterans wore a bull-of-Marathon device on their shields [^3]


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Expanded the empire south into Yue lands (modern Hunan and Guangdong) and conquered the Ordos Plateau from the Xiongnu @t[221 BCE..210 BCE] [^1]


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Discovered: Fragments found at Nippur, Ur, and Sippar; primary tablet (Ni 3191) held at Istanbul Archaeology Museums


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Primary tablet (Ni 3191): Two fragments from Nippur, Old Babylonian period copy; held at Istanbul Archaeology Museums


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Sippar exemplars: Two tablets — Si 277 (Istanbul Museum) bears the prologue; BM 54722+ (British Museum) bears the laws


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Schoyen Collection cylinder (MS 2064): Clay cylinder of unknown provenance, dated to Ur III period, preserves 8 columns [^3]


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Prologue invokes deities Nanna (moon god) and Utu (sun god), establishing the king as agent of divine justice


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Prologue also records standardization of weights and measures (the bronze sila-measure, one-mina weight, shekel of silver) [^3]


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Laws arranged in casuistic form: IF (crime) THEN (punishment) — a pattern followed in nearly all later codes [^1]


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Uses monetary compensation (fines in silver) rather than *lex talionis* ("eye for an eye") for most offenses [^1]


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Covers: Bodily injury, kidnapping, slavery, marriage and divorce, sexual offenses, agricultural disputes, sorcery accusations


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Prologue emphasizes protection of the weak: "the orphan was not delivered up to the rich man; the widow was not delivered up to the mighty man" [^3]


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Earlier code of Urukagina (~24th century BCE) is known only through references; Ur-Nammu's is the earliest extant text [^4]


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Favored fines over physical punishment, contrasting with the later *lex talionis* of Hammurabi's code


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Influenced subsequent Mesopotamian codes: Laws of Eshnunna (~1930 BCE) and Code of Lipit-Ishtar (~1870 BCE), which in turn shaped the Code of Hammurabi [^4]


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[Code of Hammurabi](../legal-codes/code-of-hammurabi.md) — later Babylonian code, ~300 years after Ur-Nammu


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Population (Classical peak): estimated 1–3 million across all poleis; Athens alone ~250,000 at its height [^2]


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Greek Dark Ages (~1100–800 BCE): Collapse of Mycenaean civilization, fragmented tribal societies @t[~1100 BCE..800 BCE] [^1]


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Classical (480–323 BCE): Golden Age of Athens, Persian Wars, Peloponnesian War, Alexander @t[480 BCE..323 BCE]


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Sparta maintained a dual kingship with an oligarchic council (*gerousia*) throughout the Classical period @t[480 BCE..323 BCE]


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Slavery was widespread; in Classical Athens, slaves may have constituted roughly one-third of the population [^2]


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Persian Wars (490–479 BCE): Greek coalition repelled two Persian invasions; key battles at Marathon (490 BCE), Thermopylae (480 BCE), and Salamis (480 BCE) @t[490 BCE..479 BCE] [^4]


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Peloponnesian War (431–404 BCE): Athens vs. Sparta; ended in Athenian defeat @t[431 BCE..404 BCE] [^4]


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Battle of Chaeronea (338 BCE): Macedonian victory ended Greek city-state independence @t[=338 BCE] [^1]


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Silver mines at Laurion (Attica) funded the Athenian navy and treasury from ~483 BCE @t[~483 BCE] [^4]


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Athens controlled key Aegean trade routes; grain imports from the Black Sea region were essential to feeding the city


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Battle of Kadesh (~1274 BCE): Fought the Hittites under Muwatalli II; indecisive but claimed as victory @t[~1274 BCE] [^1]


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Treaty of Kadesh (~1259 BCE): Signed peace with Hittite king Hattusili III; sealed by a diplomatic marriage to a Hittite princess @t[~1259 BCE]


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Led at least 15 military campaigns in the Levant, reasserting Egyptian control over Canaan and Phoenicia [^3]


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Led multiple campaigns into Nubia, commemorated in inscriptions at Beit el-Wali and Gerf Hussein [^3]


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His mummy was discovered in the Deir el-Bahari cache (TT320) in 1881 [^2]; analysis reveals severe arthritis, arteriosclerosis, and dental abscesses consistent with advanced age [^3]


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His original burial comprised three nested coffins: an inner gilded wooden coffin, an intermediary alabaster coffin, and an outer granite sarcophagus; the body was transferred to a plain wooden coffin in antiquity to protect it from grave robbers [^5]


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His original granite outer sarcophagus was identified in 2024 by Egyptologist Frédéric Payraudeau (Sorbonne University) from a fragment discovered in 2009 at a Coptic monastery in Abydos; the fragment had been reused by high priest Menkheperre during the 21st Dynasty (~1069–943 BCE), who overwrote much of the original hieroglyphic text, obscuring the royal cartouche [^4][^5]


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Nine subsequent pharaohs took the name Ramesses; he was referred to as the "Great Ancestor" by successor pharaohs [^3]


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Ramesseum excavations (2025): A joint Egyptian-French expedition (operating since 1991) uncovered the "House of Life" — an ancient scientific school — inside the mortuary temple complex, along with administrative buildings, workshops (kitchens, bakeries, stonework, textile production), and storage cellars for olive oil, honey, and wine; Third Intermediate Period shaft tombs to the northeast yielded well-preserved canopic jars, ushabti figurines, and coffins [^6]


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Hermopolis Magna statue (2024): A joint Egyptian-American mission at El Ashmunein (ancient Hermopolis Magna) recovered the upper torso (~3.8 m tall) of a massive limestone seated statue of Ramesses II; the lower half had been found by German archaeologist Günther Roeder in 1930; the reunited statue stands ~7 m tall and was likely part of a temple entrance dedicated to Thoth; University of Colorado Boulder participated in documentation [^7]


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Royal Tombs of Ur (~2600–2400 BCE): Elaborate burials with gold, lapis lazuli, and human sacrifices @t[2600 BCE..2400 BCE] [^1]


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Third Dynasty of Ur (~2112–2004 BCE): Last Sumerian dynasty, produced the Code of Ur-Nammu @t[2112 BCE..2004 BCE]


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**Oscan/Samnite period** (~5th–3rd century BCE): The Samnites incorporated Pompeii into their confederation, rebuilding temples and fortifications; much of the pre-Roman civic fabric dates to this era. @t[~450 BCE..80 BCE]


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**Roman colony** (80 BCE): After the Social War, the Roman general Lucius Cornelius Sulla besieged and captured Pompeii, settling ~2,000 veterans and establishing it as *Colonia Cornelia Veneria Pompeianorum*. @t[=80 BCE] [^3]


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A charcoal inscription discovered in 2018 reads "the 16th day before the calends of November," corresponding to 17 October 79 CE — after which the eruption must have occurred. [^4]


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**Regio V excavations** (2018–present): The House of the Garden and House of Orion yielded vivid frescoes, mosaics, skeletons, coins, and amulets. [^5]


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**Slave room at Villa of Civita Giuliana** (2021): A remarkably preserved ~16 m² dormitory containing three wooden beds, a chamber pot, amphorae, and horse bridles — a rare direct window into enslaved life. [^6]


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**Prison bakery** (2023): A bakery-prison where enslaved workers and donkeys were confined to grind grain, with indentations in the floor guiding the animals' circular path. [^7]


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**Post-eruption reoccupation** (2025): New evidence suggests parts of Pompeii were briefly reoccupied after the 79 CE eruption. [^8]


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Romans: ~86,000 (including ~6,400 cavalry); Carthaginians: ~40,000–50,000 (including ~10,000 cavalry) [^3][^4]


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Hannibal placed his weakest troops (Gauls and Iberians) in a convex center, with veteran African infantry and cavalry on the flanks


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Roman losses: ~50,000–70,000 killed (Polybius: 70,000; Livy: ~48,200) — the worst single-day defeat in Roman history [^2][^4]; ~10,000–19,000 captured; survivors fled to Canusium


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Among the Roman dead: 80 senators or men of senatorial rank, 2 quaestors, 29 of 48 military tribunes, and the previous year's consul Gnaeus Servilius Geminus [^4]


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Carthaginian losses: ~5,700–8,000 (Polybius: 5,700; Livy: ~8,000), mostly the Gauls who formed the front lines [^1][^4]


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Scipio Africanus later used Hannibal's own encirclement tactics to defeat him at the Battle of Zama (202 BCE), ending the Second Punic War @t[=202 BCE] [^1]


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Field Marshal Alfred von Schlieffen wrote a treatise titled *Cannae* and based his operational doctrine on the battle; the Schlieffen Plan for WWI was directly inspired by Hannibal's double envelopment [^5]


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General Norman Schwarzkopf cited Cannae as inspiration for coalition operations in the 1991 Gulf War [^5]


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text:
Hittite version: Cuneiform clay tablets discovered at Hattusa in 1906 by German archaeologist Hugo Winckler; two tablets now held at the Ancient Orient Museum, Istanbul [^3]


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Earliest known surviving peace treaty for which both parties' versions survive; an earlier diplomatic treaty between Ebla and Abarsal (~2350 BCE) predates it but is not classified as a peace treaty [^4]


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Later sealed by a diplomatic marriage: Maathorneferure, daughter of Hattusili III, married Ramesses II in his Year 34 (~1246 BCE) @t[~1246 BCE] [^4]


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Ushered in a prolonged period of peace and cooperation, allowing Ramesses II to focus on monumental building projects [^3]


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Before drafting, a delegation of three men was sent to Athens to study the laws of Solon (c. 640–560 BCE) [^3]


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The first decemviri (all patricians) produced ten tables; a second commission added two more in 450 BCE [^3]


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A plebeian uprising in 449 BCE forced the decemviri to resign; Rome's constitution was revised and tribunes and consuls were reinstated [^3]


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Focused primarily on private law and relations between individual citizens, not individuals vs. the state [^3]


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Penalties included death by burning for arson, and banishment or loss of citizenship for property crimes [^3]


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Livy described them as *fons omnis publici privatique iuris* ("the source of all public and private law") [^3]


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From the 3rd century BCE onward, steadily superseded by laws more relevant to the expanding Republic [^3]


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Inherited a small kingdom (Babylon, Kish, Sippar, Borsippa) and expanded it through military campaigns and diplomacy [^3]


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Formed a temporary alliance with Larsa to repel an Elamite invasion, then turned against Larsa and absorbed its territories [^3]


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Conquered city-states of Larsa, Eshnunna, and Mari; ousted Ishme-Dagan I of Assyria, forcing his son Mut-Ashkur to pay tribute [^3]


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Was the first ruler to successfully govern all of Mesopotamia without revolt following his initial conquests [^3]


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Improved irrigation systems and infrastructure; control of canal flow also served as a strategic tool against rival city-states [^3]


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Over 200 surviving royal letters document his direct administrative oversight of conquered territories, including correspondence with officials in Larsa [^3]


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The stele's relief depicts Hammurabi receiving the laws from Shamash, the sun god of justice, symbolizing divine authority [^3]


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Prologue: Hammurabi as divinely appointed shepherd of his people; relief at top depicts Hammurabi receiving authority from Shamash, the sun god [^1]


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The stele was taken as plunder to Susa by the Elamite king Shutruk-Nahhunte around 1158 BCE, approximately 600 years after its creation


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The text was copied and studied by Mesopotamian scribes for over a millennium after its creation, attesting to its lasting authority [^4]


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Not the earliest code (preceded by Code of Ur-Nammu, ~2100–2050 BCE) but the longest, best-organized, and best-preserved legal text from the ancient Near East [^4]


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Influenced later Near Eastern legal traditions; parallels noted with the Law of Moses in the Torah [^4]


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Library of Alexandria and the Mouseion: by the 2nd century BCE, Alexandria had grown into a cosmopolitan metropolis of ~300,000 people [^3]


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Alexander's Persian campaign injected vast quantities of silver bullion into the Greek monetary system, enabling standardized coinage across the Hellenistic world [^3]


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Major Hellenistic cities — Alexandria, Antioch, Pergamon — were planned on Hippodamian grid layouts with monumental public spaces blending Greek and local architectural traditions


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Long-distance trade networks connected the Mediterranean to Central Asia and India, facilitated by shared coinage standards and Koine Greek as a commercial language


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Priestly caste: Magi (originally a Median tribe; assumed Zoroastrian priestly functions under the Achaemenids) [^3]


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Aməša Spəntas: Six abstract divine entities surrounding Ahura Mazda, representing hypostases of his attributes (e.g., Good Mind, Truth, Devotion) [^3]


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Arsacid (Parthian) period (247 BCE–224 CE) @t[247 BCE..224]: Zoroastrianism maintained but with religious tolerance; Avestan texts partially dispersed after Alexander's conquest [^3]


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Sasanian Empire (ca. 224–651 CE) @t[224..651]: Last Zoroastrian state; Sasanians established unity of church and state, greatly expanded sacred fire temples, and canonized the Avesta under Khosrow I (531–579 CE) [^3]


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Parsi migration: Zoroastrian refugees fled to India likely in the 8th–9th century CE, founding the Parsi community [^3]


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Negev segment: Four Nabataean towns — Haluza, Mamshit, Avdat, and Shivta — served as key stations on the final leg from Petra to Gaza @t[~300 BCE..~200 CE] [^3]


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Nabataeans: Controlled the northern segment from Petra; grew wealthy as middlemen @t[~300 BCE..106 CE] [^1] [^2]


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Minaeans: Earlier controllers of the southern Arabian trade, predating Nabataean dominance @t[~700 BCE..~100 BCE] [^1]


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Romans: Attempted to conquer Arabia Felix under Aelius Gallus (26–24 BCE) but failed @t[26 BCE..24 BCE] [^2] [^4]


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Romans discovered how to exploit monsoon wind patterns (attributed to the navigator Hippalus, ~1st century BCE) enabling direct sea trade with India via the Red Sea, bypassing overland routes @t[~100 BCE..~100 CE] [^5]


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The Roman annexation of Nabataea in 106 CE @t[=106 CE] disrupted the Nabataean middleman system, and the route saw sharp decline through the 3rd century CE [^3]


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Strabo, *Geographica* (1st century BCE/CE): Detailed account of the Aelius Gallus expedition and Arabian trade [^4]


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*Periplus of the Erythraean Sea* (1st century CE): Eyewitness account of Red Sea and Indian Ocean trade routes, documenting the shift to maritime trade [^5]


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Octavian's forces: ~400 ships (light Liburnian vessels) + 80,000 infantry, 12,000 cavalry; Antony's forces: ~480 ships (heavy quinqueremes) + ~60,000–63,000 infantry [^3]


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Agrippa seized Methone and Leucas in early 31 BCE, cutting off Antony's Egyptian supply lines before the main engagement


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Agrippa's Liburnians used the *harpax* — an iron-encased grappling harpoon fired by catapult — to immobilize Antony's larger, slower warships


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Cleopatra killed herself on 30 August 30 BCE rather than be paraded in Octavian's triumph @t[=30 BCE] [^1]


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Writing: Oracle bone script (~1200 BCE), evolving into seal script and clerical script @t[~1200 BCE]


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Shang (~1600–1046 BCE): First historically verified dynasty, oracle bones, bronze casting @t[~1600 BCE..1046 BCE] [^1]


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Zhou (~1046–256 BCE): Longest dynasty, Mandate of Heaven, Confucius, Laozi @t[1046 BCE..256 BCE] [^3]


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Qin (221–206 BCE): First unified empire under Qin Shi Huang, Great Wall, standardization @t[221 BCE..206 BCE]


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Han (206 BCE – 220 CE): Silk Road trade, paper invention, Confucian state ideology @t[206 BCE..220 CE]


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Silk production: earliest archaeological evidence ~2700 BCE (Qianshanyang site, Zhejiang) @t[~2700 BCE] [^4]


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Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism as philosophical traditions (Hundred Schools of Thought, ~770–221 BCE) @t[~770 BCE..221 BCE]


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text:
Confucius (~551–479 BCE): Founder of Confucianism; active during the Spring and Autumn period @t[~551 BCE..479 BCE]


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text:
Laozi (~6th century BCE): Founder of Daoism; traditionally associated with the Zhou court @t[~600 BCE..500 BCE]


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created_at: 2026-02-23 03:30:30
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text:
Late Republic (264–27 BCE): Punic Wars, civil wars, Caesar's assassination (44 BCE) @t[264 BCE..27 BCE]


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text:
Consuls: Two annually elected magistrates holding executive and military authority (monarchic element)


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text:
Senate: ~300 members drawn from former magistrates, controlling finances and foreign policy (aristocratic element)


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text:
Assemblies: Popular legislative bodies (Comitia Centuriata, Comitia Tributa) holding formal legislative power (democratic element)


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text:
Context: Ended the Archidamian War (431–421 BCE), first phase of the Peloponnesian War @t[431 BCE..421 BCE]


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text:
Athens to release the 292 prisoners captured at Pylos and Sphacteria (425 BCE), including at least 120 Spartiates @t[=425 BCE]


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text:
Neither side fully implemented the terms; Sparta failed to deliver Amphipolis, which remained under local control


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text:
Alcibiades undermined the peace by forming the Quadruple Alliance with Argos, Elis, and Mantinea (420 BCE) @t[=420 BCE] [^2]


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created_at: 2026-02-23 03:30:41
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text:
The Sicilian Expedition (415–413 BCE) effectively ended any pretense of peace @t[415 BCE..413 BCE] [^2]


