# documents

id: 31de03
repo_id: main
file_path: legal-codes/code-of-hammurabi.md
file_hash: 2c29acc93c5e5152f9910d6d4a7988c927a6d3bb57fc87af05f6719bd2a5b6ff
title: Code of Hammurabi
doc_type: legal-code
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.654909735+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.844147398+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:31de03 -->
# Code of Hammurabi

## Overview
The Code of Hammurabi (~1754 BCE) is one of the most complete and well-known ancient legal codes, inscribed on a basalt stele and containing 282 laws governing Babylonian society. @t[~1754 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Date: ~1754 BCE (Wikipedia/Roth give range 1755–1751 BCE) @t[~1754 BCE]
- Issuer: Hammurabi, sixth king of the First Babylonian Dynasty
- Language: Akkadian (Old Babylonian dialect), written in cuneiform script
- Medium: Black basalt stele, 2.25 m tall (some older sources describe the material as diorite) [^3]
- Current location: Louvre Museum, Paris (discovered at Susa, Iran, 1901–1902) [^3]
- Weight: approximately 4 tons

## Structure
- Prologue: Hammurabi as divinely appointed shepherd of his people; relief at top depicts Hammurabi receiving authority from Shamash, the sun god [^1]
- 282 laws organized by topic, written vertically in cuneiform
- Epilogue: Blessings for those who uphold the laws, curses for those who deface the stele [^1]

## Legal Principles
- *Lex talionis*: "An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth" (with class-based modifications) [^2]
- Three social classes: *awilum* (free), *mushkenum* (dependent), *wardum* (slave)
- Covers: Property, trade, family law, labor, personal injury, agriculture
- Presumption of innocence in some cases; trial by ordeal in others [^2]
- Prescribed specific penalties for each crime; limited retribution to proportional response

## Discovery and Transmission
- The stele was taken as plunder to Susa by the Elamite king Shutruk-Nahhunte around 1158 BCE, approximately 600 years after its creation
- Rediscovered by French archaeologists at Susa in 1901–1902
- The text was copied and studied by Mesopotamian scribes for over a millennium after its creation, attesting to its lasting authority [^4]

## Significance
- Not the earliest code (preceded by Code of Ur-Nammu, ~2100–2050 BCE) but the longest, best-organized, and best-preserved legal text from the ancient Near East [^4]
- Provides detailed picture of Old Babylonian society
- Influenced later Near Eastern legal traditions; parallels noted with the Law of Moses in the Torah [^4]
- Continues to be studied for its influence on modern legal jurisprudence

---
[^1]: Roth, M.T. *Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia Minor* (1997)
[^2]: Driver, G.R. & Miles, J.C. *The Babylonian Laws* (Oxford, 1952–1955)
[^3]: Louvre Museum. "The Code of Hammurabi." louvre.fr (accessed 2026)
[^4]: Wikipedia contributors. "Code of Hammurabi." *Wikipedia* (accessed 2026-02-23)
---

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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 17: "282 laws organized by topic, written vertically in cuneiform" - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 21: "*Lex talionis*: "An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth" (with class-based mo..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 22: "Three social classes: *awilum* (free), *mushkenum* (dependent), *wardum* (slave)" - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 23: "Covers: Property, trade, family law, labor, personal injury, agriculture" - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 24: "Presumption of innocence in some cases; trial by ordeal in others [^2]" - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 33: "Not the earliest code (preceded by Code of Ur-Nammu, ~2100–2050 BCE) but th..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 34: "Provides detailed picture of Old Babylonian society" - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 24: "Presumption of innocence in some cases; trial by ordeal in others [^2]" - Driver source from 1952 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
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id: 5a1717
repo_id: main
file_path: legal-codes/code-of-ur-nammu.md
file_hash: 02ac8173e7090b3c76413f56fd5d13bf498808460e1a61e4086332498b86a123
title: Code of Ur-Nammu
doc_type: legal-code
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.653909731+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.846920833+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:5a1717 -->
# Code of Ur-Nammu

## Overview
The Code of Ur-Nammu (~2100–2050 BCE) is the oldest known surviving legal code, predating the Code of Hammurabi by ~300 years. It was issued by Ur-Nammu (or his son Shulgi) of the Third Dynasty of Ur. @t[~2100 BCE..~2050 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Date: ~2100–2050 BCE @t[~2100 BCE..~2050 BCE]
- Issuer: Ur-Nammu (r. 2112–2095 BCE) or his son Shulgi (r. 2094–2047 BCE), Third Dynasty of Ur
- Language: Sumerian (cuneiform script on clay tablets)
- Discovered: Fragments found at Nippur, Ur, and Sippar; primary tablet (Ni 3191) held at Istanbul Archaeology Museums
- First translated: Samuel Noah Kramer, 1952 [^2]

## Physical Record
- Primary tablet (Ni 3191): Two fragments from Nippur, Old Babylonian period copy; held at Istanbul Archaeology Museums
- Ur fragments (IM 85688+85689): Found at Ur, translated 1965; held at Iraq Museum, Baghdad
- Sippar exemplars: Two tablets — Si 277 (Istanbul Museum) bears the prologue; BM 54722+ (British Museum) bears the laws
- Schoyen Collection cylinder (MS 2064): Clay cylinder of unknown provenance, dated to Ur III period, preserves 8 columns [^3]
- Total laws: ~57 reconstructed across all fragments; ~30 legible in any single recension [^3]

## Content
- Prologue invokes deities Nanna (moon god) and Utu (sun god), establishing the king as agent of divine justice
- Prologue also records standardization of weights and measures (the bronze sila-measure, one-mina weight, shekel of silver) [^3]
- Laws arranged in casuistic form: IF (crime) THEN (punishment) — a pattern followed in nearly all later codes [^1]
- Uses monetary compensation (fines in silver) rather than *lex talionis* ("eye for an eye") for most offenses [^1]
- Capital offenses: murder, robbery, adultery (by a woman), and rape of a virgin wife [^3]
- Covers: Bodily injury, kidnapping, slavery, marriage and divorce, sexual offenses, agricultural disputes, sorcery accusations

## Social Structure Reflected
- Society divided into two strata: *lu* (free person) and slave (*arad* male, *geme* female) [^3]
- Fines and penalties differentiated by social status
- Prologue emphasizes protection of the weak: "the orphan was not delivered up to the rich man; the widow was not delivered up to the mighty man" [^3]

## Significance
- Oldest known surviving legal code, predating Hammurabi by ~300 years
- Earlier code of Urukagina (~24th century BCE) is known only through references; Ur-Nammu's is the earliest extant text [^4]
- Favored fines over physical punishment, contrasting with the later *lex talionis* of Hammurabi's code
- Influenced subsequent Mesopotamian codes: Laws of Eshnunna (~1930 BCE) and Code of Lipit-Ishtar (~1870 BCE), which in turn shaped the Code of Hammurabi [^4]
- Demonstrates sophisticated legal thinking in the 3rd millennium BCE [^2]

## Related Documents
- [Code of Hammurabi](../legal-codes/code-of-hammurabi.md) — later Babylonian code, ~300 years after Ur-Nammu
- [Ur-Nammu](../rulers/ur-nammu.md) — issuer of the code
- [Third Dynasty of Ur](../cities/ur.md) — political context

---
[^1]: Roth, M.T. *Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia Minor* (1997)
[^2]: Kramer, S.N. "Ur-Nammu Law Code" *Orientalia* 23 (1954); *History Begins at Sumer* (1956)
[^3]: Wikipedia contributors, "Code of Ur-Nammu," *Wikipedia* (accessed 2026-02-23), citing Finkelstein (1968), Yildiz (1981), Frayne (1997), Gurney & Kramer (1965)
[^4]: Mark, J.J. "The Ancient Mesopotamian Legal Code of Ur-Nammu," *World History Encyclopedia* (2021)
---

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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Total laws: ~57 reconstructed across all fragments; ~30 legible in any single..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 17: "Sippar exemplars: Two tablets — Si 277 (Istanbul Museum) bears the prologue..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 22: "Prologue invokes deities Nanna (moon god) and Utu (sun god), establishing the..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 27: "Covers: Bodily injury, kidnapping, slavery, marriage and divorce, sexual offe..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 31: "Fines and penalties differentiated by social status" - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 24: "Laws arranged in casuistic form: IF (crime) THEN (punishment) — a pattern f..." - Roth source from 1997 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
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- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 25: "Uses monetary compensation (fines in silver) rather than *lex talionis* ("eye..." - Roth source from 1997 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
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- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 36: "Earlier code of Urukagina (~24th century BCE) is known only through reference..." - Mark source from 2021 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
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  > 

- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 39: "Demonstrates sophisticated legal thinking in the 3rd millennium BCE [^2]" - Kramer source from 1954 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
  > 


id: 6beab6
repo_id: main
file_path: legal-codes/twelve-tables.md
file_hash: 09258fa6f0a5fe1a165b05b1858a8b0ab38148e4612387047fe8eaa1ac8153dc
title: Twelve Tables
doc_type: legal-code
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.653909731+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.849382899+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:6beab6 -->
# Twelve Tables

## Overview
The Twelve Tables (*Lex Duodecim Tabularum*, ~451–449 BCE) were the foundation of Roman law, the first written legal code of the Roman Republic. @t[451 BCE..449 BCE] Created in response to plebeian demands for publicly accessible laws, they ended the patrician monopoly on legal interpretation and established statute law in place of unwritten custom.

## Key Facts
- Date: ~451–449 BCE @t[451 BCE..449 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Issuer: Decemviri (commission of ten men, all patricians) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Language: Archaic Latin <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Context: Conflict of the Orders between patricians and plebeians <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Formal Latin name: *Lex Duodecim Tabularum* (Law of the Twelve Tables)

## Creation
- In 451 BCE, the *decemviri* were appointed under public pressure to codify Roman law [^3]
- Before drafting, a delegation of three men was sent to Athens to study the laws of Solon (c. 640–560 BCE) [^3]
- The first decemviri (all patricians) produced ten tables; a second commission added two more in 450 BCE [^3]
- A plebeian uprising in 449 BCE forced the decemviri to resign; Rome's constitution was revised and tribunes and consuls were reinstated [^3]
- Formally promulgated 449 BCE @t[=449 BCE]

## Content
- Originally inscribed on twelve bronze tablets displayed in the Roman Forum <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Covered: Court procedure, debt, family law, property, inheritance, torts, public law [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Focused primarily on private law and relations between individual citizens, not individuals vs. the state [^3]
- Established legal equality (in principle) between patricians and plebeians <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Prohibited intermarriage between classes (later repealed by *Lex Canuleia*, 445 BCE) @t[=445 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Penalties included death by burning for arson, and banishment or loss of citizenship for property crimes [^3]

## Significance
- Foundation of all subsequent Roman law (*ius civile*) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Livy described them as *fons omnis publici privatique iuris* ("the source of all public and private law") [^3]
- First written Roman law, ending patrician monopoly on legal interpretation <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Cicero records that Roman schoolchildren memorized them as part of their education [^3] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- From the 3rd century BCE onward, steadily superseded by laws more relevant to the expanding Republic [^3]
- Original tablets lost (possibly in the Gallic sack of Rome, 390 BCE) @t[=390 BCE] [^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Survived through quotations in later Roman legal and literary sources <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

---
[^1]: Crawford, M.H. *Roman Statutes* (1996)
[^2]: Watson, A. *Rome of the XII Tables* (Princeton, 1975)
[^3]: Cartwright, M. "Twelve Tables." *World History Encyclopedia*, 11 Apr 2016. https://www.worldhistory.org/Twelve_Tables/
---

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id: 9f0b6a
repo_id: main
file_path: religions/ancient-egyptian-religion.md
file_hash: ad099c300f6e5f66d2db7f29f1ec426cf2316904729d5d77214dfb5e799a4fc8
title: Ancient Egyptian Religion
doc_type: religion
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.659909754+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.851977733+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:9f0b6a -->
# Ancient Egyptian Religion

## Overview
Ancient Egyptian religion was a complex polytheistic system practiced for over 3,000 years, centered on maintaining *ma'at* (cosmic order) through ritual, temple worship, and funerary practices. Approximately 1,500 deities are attested across the full span of Egyptian history [^3].

## Key Facts
- Period: ~3100 BCE – ~400 CE (suppressed under Christianity) @t[~3100 BCE..~400 CE]
- Type: Polytheistic with henotheistic tendencies
- Sacred texts: Pyramid Texts (~2400–2300 BCE), Coffin Texts (~2100–1650 BCE), Book of the Dead (~1550 BCE onward) [^4]
- Priesthood: Temple-based, pharaoh as chief intermediary with the gods

## Major Deities
- Ra/Amun-Ra: Sun god, king of the gods; center of solar theology at Heliopolis
- Osiris: God of the dead and resurrection
- Isis: Goddess of magic and motherhood
- Horus: Sky god, divine kingship
- Anubis: God of mummification
- Thoth: God of writing and wisdom
- Ptah: God of craftsmen and creation; patron deity of Memphis [^3]
- Set: God of chaos, storms, and the desert; adversary of Horus [^1]

## Key Concepts
- *Ma'at*: Cosmic order, truth, and justice
- *Ka* and *Ba*: Aspects of the soul
- *Heka*: Divine magic; the animating force underlying all ritual and divine power [^3]
- Afterlife: Judgment by Osiris, weighing of the heart against the feather of Ma'at
- Mummification: Preservation of the body for the afterlife

## Theological Systems
Egyptian theology was not monolithic; competing creation traditions developed around major cult centers [^5]:

- **Heliopolitan Ennead**: Nine primordial deities centered on Atum/Ra at Heliopolis — Atum, Shu, Tefnut, Geb, Nut, Osiris, Isis, Set, and Nephthys
- **Hermopolitan Ogdoad**: Eight deities representing primordial chaos at Hermopolis — four pairs embodying water (Nun/Naunet), infinity (Heh/Hauhet), darkness (Kek/Kauket), and hidden forces (Amun/Amaunet)
- **Memphite Theology**: Ptah as creator-god who brought the world into being through thought and speech (*Shabaka Stone*, ~700 BCE, copying an older text)

## Major Cult Centers
- **Heliopolis** (near modern Cairo): Center of solar worship; temple of Ra/Atum; origin of the Ennead tradition
- **Memphis**: Cult center of Ptah; political and religious capital of the Old Kingdom
- **Thebes** (modern Luxor): Center of Amun worship; site of Karnak and Luxor temples; dominant from the Middle Kingdom onward
- **Abydos**: Principal cult center of Osiris; major pilgrimage site and royal necropolis

## Atenism
Pharaoh Akhenaten (~1353–1336 BCE) briefly imposed monotheistic worship of the Aten (sun disk), suppressing other cults. Reversed after his death [^2]. @t[~1353 BCE..~1336 BCE]

---
[^1]: Wilkinson, R. *The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt* (Thames & Hudson, 2003)
[^2]: Assmann, J. *The Search for God in Ancient Egypt* (Cornell University Press, 2001)
[^3]: Hornung, E. *Conceptions of God in Ancient Egypt: The One and the Many* (Cornell University Press, 1982)
[^4]: Faulkner, R.O. *The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts* (Oxford University Press, 1969); Allen, J.P. *The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts* (Society of Biblical Literature, 2005)
[^5]: Allen, J.P. *Genesis in Egypt: The Philosophy of Ancient Egyptian Creation Accounts* (Yale Egyptological Studies, 1988)
---

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id: 459036
repo_id: main
file_path: religions/early-christianity.md
file_hash: 633a5e3eb61bef1c310b613f4514abc61328d525c0921df466aa4658b702e9ad
title: Early Christianity
doc_type: religion
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.659909754+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.854584310+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:459036 -->
# Early Christianity

## Overview
Early Christianity emerged in the 1st century CE as a Jewish sect in Roman Judaea, growing into a major religion across the Roman Empire before becoming the state religion under Theodosius I in 380 CE. @t[=380]

## Key Facts
- Origin: Roman Judaea, ~30 CE @t[~30]
- Founder: Jesus of Nazareth (~4 BCE – ~30 CE) @t[~4 BCE..~30 CE]
- Key figures: Paul of Tarsus, Peter, James
- Sacred texts: New Testament (written ~50–120 CE) @t[~50..~120]
- State religion of Rome: 380 CE (Edict of Thessalonica) @t[=380]

## Spread and Development
- Paul's missionary journeys (~46–60 CE) spread Christianity across the eastern Mediterranean @t[~46..~60] [^1]
- Persecutions under Nero (64 CE) @t[=64], Decius (250 CE) @t[=250], Diocletian (303–311 CE) @t[=303..=311]
- Edict of Milan (313 CE): Constantine legalized Christianity @t[=313]
- Council of Nicaea (325 CE): First ecumenical council, established the Nicene Creed @t[=325]
- Edict of Thessalonica (380 CE): Christianity became the state religion @t[=380]

## Key Theological Developments
- Christological debates: Nature of Christ debated from Council of Nicaea through Council of Chalcedon @t[=325..=451] [^3]
- Council of Chalcedon (451 CE): Defined Christ as having two natures (divine and human); caused the Chalcedonian Schism, splitting Oriental Orthodox churches @t[=451] [^3]
- Donatist controversy (4th–6th century CE): Schism over whether clergy moral failings invalidated sacraments; condemned at Council of Carthage @t[~311..~600] [^2]
- Canon formation: New Testament canon largely settled by ~4th century CE @t[~300..~400]
- Monasticism: Desert Fathers in Egypt (~3rd–4th century CE) @t[~200..~400] [^2]

---
[^1]: Ehrman, B. *The New Testament: A Historical Introduction* (Oxford, 2016)
[^2]: Brown, P. *The Rise of Western Christendom* (Blackwell, 2003)
[^3]: World History Encyclopedia. "Council of Chalcedon." worldhistory.org (2024)
---

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id: 072273
repo_id: main
file_path: religions/greek-religion.md
file_hash: 6785ee4f050f1942f4f82d0d49d755a888bbf7a4514970bd1f6c0682db1a471e
title: Greek Religion
doc_type: religion
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.659909754+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.858542871+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:072273 -->
# Greek Religion

## Overview
Ancient Greek religion was a polytheistic system centered on the Olympian gods, practiced through public festivals, sacrifices, oracles, and mystery cults from the Archaic through Hellenistic periods. It had no single founding text, no professional priestly class, and no creed — participation in communal ritual was the defining act of piety. [^3]

## Key Facts
- Period: ~800 BCE – ~400 CE (suppressed under Christianity) @t[~800 BCE..~400]
- Type: Polytheistic
- Sacred sites: Olympia, Delphi, Eleusis, Delos, Dodona
- Key texts: Homer's *Iliad* and *Odyssey*, Hesiod's *Theogony*

## The Olympian Gods
- Zeus: King of the gods, sky and thunder
- Hera: Queen of the gods, marriage
- Athena: Wisdom and warfare
- Apollo: Light, music, prophecy, and healing (distinct from Helios, the sun god)
- Artemis: Hunt and wilderness
- Poseidon: Sea and earthquakes
- Aphrodite: Love and beauty
- Ares, Hermes, Hephaestus, Demeter, Dionysus [^1]

## Religious Practices
- Animal sacrifice at altars (the central act of public worship; portions burned for the gods, remainder shared by worshippers)
- Libations: ritual pouring of wine, water, honey, or oil
- Votive offerings: objects dedicated at sanctuaries in thanks or supplication
- Panhellenic festivals: Olympic Games (776 BCE–), Pythian Games, Eleusinian Mysteries @t[=776 BCE]
- Panathenaic festival (Athens): annual procession to the Acropolis delivering a new *peplos* (robe) to Athena's cult statue; the Great Panathenaia, held every four years from 566 BCE, included athletic, equestrian, and musical competitions and recitations of Homer @t[=566 BCE] [^7]
- Oracle at Delphi: Pythia delivered prophecies from Apollo
- Mystery cults: Eleusinian Mysteries, Orphic mysteries, Dionysiac rites [^2]

## Sanctuary Structure
Greek worship centered on the *temenos* (sacred precinct), which contained an outdoor altar where sacrifices took place. The *naos* (temple) housed the cult statue of the deity but was not a congregational space — rituals occurred outside. Sanctuaries ranged from simple rural shrines to monumental complexes like the Acropolis at Athens or the sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi. [^1]

## Hero Cults
Alongside the Olympians, Greeks venerated heroes — deceased humans (often mythological warriors) who received worship at their tombs. Hero cults were intensely local: a hero protected a specific community and was propitiated with chthonic rites (offerings poured into the ground rather than burned upward). Prominent examples include Heracles, Achilles, and Theseus. [^4]

## Afterlife Beliefs
Greeks believed the *psyche* (soul) separated from the body at death and descended to the underworld, ruled by Hades and Persephone. The realm comprised distinct regions: the Asphodel Meadows for ordinary souls, Elysium (the Elysian Fields) for heroes and the virtuous, and Tartarus for the wicked. Souls were judged by three judges — Minos, Rhadamanthus, and Aeacus. Proper burial was a religious obligation; an unburied soul was believed to wander the banks of the Styx for a hundred years before gaining entry. The coin placed in the mouth or on the eyes of the dead (*obol*) paid Charon, the ferryman. These beliefs are attested in Homer and elaborated in Plato's *Phaedo* and *Republic*. [^1] [^8]

## Household Religion
Private worship (*oikos* religion) ran parallel to public cult. Households maintained shrines to Hestia (hearth goddess) and Zeus Ktesios (protector of the household store). The *herm* (a pillar topped with Hermes' head) stood at doorways as protection. Daily libations and small offerings were routine domestic acts. [^3]

## Polis Religion
Modern scholarship (Sourvinou-Inwood, 1990) frames Greek religion as fundamentally embedded in the *polis* (city-state): civic identity and religious identity were inseparable. The city organized, funded, and participated in festivals as a collective. This "polis religion" model has been refined but remains influential; Kindt (2012) and Eidinow & Kindt (2015) have expanded it to include personal and private dimensions. [^3]

## The Oracle at Delphi
The sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi was active from at least the 8th century BCE. The Pythia (priestess) entered a trance state to deliver oracles. Ancient sources described intoxicating vapors rising from a chasm; modern geological research (De Boer, Hale et al., 2001) identified intersecting fault lines beneath the temple emitting ethylene and ethane gases from bituminous limestone, providing a plausible physical basis for the Pythia's altered state. [^5]

## Divination
Beyond the oracle at Delphi, Greeks employed a wide range of divinatory practices. Haruspicy (reading the entrails of sacrificed animals, especially the liver) was performed by professional seers (*manteis*) attached to armies and city-states. Augury (interpreting the flight and behavior of birds) was a standard method for both military and civic decisions. The oracle of Zeus at Dodona in Epirus — considered the oldest oracle in Greece — delivered prophecies through the rustling of sacred oak leaves and the cooing of doves. Cleromancy (casting lots) was used at several sanctuaries. Flower (2008) provides a comprehensive study of the Greek seer's role in civic and military life. [^9]

## The Eleusinian Mysteries
The Mysteries at Eleusis, centered on the myth of Persephone's abduction by Hades and her return, promised initiates a blessed afterlife. They predated the Greek Dark Ages (attested from ~1500 BCE) and continued into the 4th century CE. Initiates drank the *kykeon*, a barley-and-mint preparation. Wasson, Hofmann & Ruck (1978) proposed the kykeon contained ergot-derived psychoactive alkaloids; this hypothesis remains debated, with a 2024 *Scientific Reports* study suggesting ergot alkaloids could have been detoxified to produce a milder psychoactive compound. [^2] @t[~1500 BCE] [^6]

## Decline and Suppression
Greek religion was progressively suppressed following the Christianization of the Roman Empire. Theodosius I issued edicts in 391–392 CE prohibiting pagan sacrifices and closing temples throughout the empire. The Eleusinian Mysteries ended around 396 CE when Alaric's Visigoths sacked the sanctuary at Eleusis. The Olympic Games, last attested in 393 CE, ceased around this period, though the precise mechanism of their end remains debated in scholarship. [^10]

---
[^1]: Burkert, W. *Greek Religion* (Harvard, 1985)
[^2]: Mikalson, J. *Ancient Greek Religion* (Blackwell, 2010)
[^3]: Eidinow, E. & Kindt, J. (eds). *The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Greek Religion* (Oxford, 2015)
[^4]: Jones, C. P. "Hero Cults in Ancient Greece." *Brewminate*, 2021.
[^5]: De Boer, J. Z., Hale, J. R., & Chanton, J. "New evidence for the geological origins of the ancient Delphic oracle." *Geology* 29.8 (2001): 707–710.
[^6]: Arkeonews. "Ancient Greece's Deadliest Secret: Did a Hallucinogenic Fungus Power the Eleusinian Mysteries?" 2024.
[^7]: Neils, J. (ed.). *Goddess and Polis: The Panathenaic Festival in Ancient Athens*. Princeton University Art Museum / University Press of New England, 1992.
[^8]: Garland, R. *The Greek Way of Death*. Cornell University Press, 1985.
[^9]: Flower, M. A. *The Seer in Ancient Greece*. University of California Press, 2008.
[^10]: Trombley, F. R. *Hellenic Religion and Christianization, c. 370–529*. 2 vols. Brill, 1993–1994.
---

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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 20: "Aphrodite: Love and beauty" - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 21: "Ares, Hermes, Hephaestus, Demeter, Dionysus [^1]" - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Libations: ritual pouring of wine, water, honey, or oil" - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 26: "Votive offerings: objects dedicated at sanctuaries in thanks or supplication" - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 29: "Oracle at Delphi: Pythia delivered prophecies from Apollo" - when was this true?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 30: "Mystery cults: Eleusinian Mysteries, Orphic mysteries, Dionysiac rites [^2]" - when was this true?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 8: Malformed temporal tag @t[~-800..~400] — see docs for valid syntax
  > 

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  > 

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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 14: "Zeus: King of the gods, sky and thunder" - what is the source?
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  > 


id: 5dccc5
repo_id: main
file_path: religions/mesopotamian-religion.md
file_hash: 8504030ca0a8bd8ca75d19dafbba7d711c326936f02373bd9d5602ea8459370c
title: Mesopotamian Religion
doc_type: religion
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.659909754+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.862242868+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:5dccc5 -->
# Mesopotamian Religion

## Overview
Mesopotamian religion was the polytheistic belief system of Sumer, Akkad, Babylonia, and Assyria, practiced from ~4000 BCE until supplanted by Christianity and Islam in late antiquity. It profoundly influenced later Near Eastern religions, including Canaanite, Hebrew, and early Christian traditions. @t[~4000 BCE..~500 CE]

## Key Facts
- Period: ~4000 BCE – ~500 CE @t[~4000 BCE..~500 CE]
- Type: Polytheistic
- Sacred sites: Ziggurats in every major city
- Key texts: *Enuma Elish* (creation epic), *Epic of Gilgamesh*, *Descent of Inanna*, *Atrahasis Epic*

## Major Deities
- An/Anu: Sky god, father of the gods
- Enlil: God of wind and storms, chief deity of Nippur; head of the pantheon in the Sumerian period
- Enki/Ea: God of wisdom, magic, and fresh water; patron of craftsmen and scribes
- Inanna/Ishtar: Goddess of love, war, and fertility; patron of Uruk [^1]
- Marduk: Patron god of Babylon, elevated to supreme deity in the *Enuma Elish* (~18th–12th century BCE) [^1]
- Shamash/Utu: Sun god and god of justice [^1]
- Nanna/Sin: Moon god, son of Enlil; patron of Ur; one of the oldest attested deities (~3500 BCE) [^3]
- Nergal: God of death, plague, and the underworld; ruler of *Irkalla* alongside Ereshkigal [^1]
- Tiamat: Primordial goddess of salt water; slain by Marduk in the *Enuma Elish* to form heaven and earth [^2]

## Key Concepts
- Ziggurats: Temple platforms connecting heaven and earth; each city's ziggurat housed its patron deity
- City-patron system: Each city-state worshipped its own patron deity while acknowledging the broader pantheon [^1]
- Divination: Extispicy (reading entrails), astrology, and dream interpretation were state-sponsored practices [^1]
- Temple economy: Temples functioned as economic centers — managing land, labor, and redistribution of goods [^1]
- Personal piety: Individuals maintained personal household gods (*lamma*) and prayed daily; religion was transactional — offerings in exchange for divine favor [^1]
- Flood narrative: Utnapishtim in the *Epic of Gilgamesh* (parallels Noah); earlier version in the *Atrahasis Epic* [^2]
- Afterlife: Gloomy underworld (*Kur*/*Irkalla*) for all souls, regardless of virtue; no concept of reward or punishment after death [^1]
- Hierarchical pantheon: By the 2nd–1st millennia BCE, gods were organized into a monarchical hierarchy with the national god of each state at the head [^1]

---
[^1]: Bottéro, J. *Religion in Ancient Mesopotamia* (University of Chicago Press, 2001)
[^2]: Dalley, S. *Myths from Mesopotamia* (Oxford, 2000)
[^3]: Mark, J.J. "Nanna." *World History Encyclopedia* (2023). https://www.worldhistory.org/Nanna/
---


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> 4000 BCE event. Attested by Bottéro (2001) [^1]; Dalley (2000) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Type: Polytheistic" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Bottéro (2001) [^1]; Dalley (2000) [^2].
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> Historical event. Attested by Bottéro (2001) [^1]; Dalley (2000) [^2].
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> Historical event. Attested by Bottéro (2001) [^1]; Dalley (2000) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 16: "An/Anu: Sky god, father of the gods" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Bottéro (2001) [^1]; Dalley (2000) [^2].
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> Historical event. Attested by Bottéro (2001) [^1]; Dalley (2000) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Enki/Ea: God of wisdom and fresh water" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Bottéro (2001) [^1]; Dalley (2000) [^2].
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> Historical event. Attested by Bottéro (2001) [^1]; Dalley (2000) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 20: "Marduk: Patron god of Babylon, supreme deity in the *Enuma Elish*" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Bottéro (2001) [^1]; Dalley (2000) [^2].
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> Historical event. Attested by Bottéro (2001) [^1]; Dalley (2000) [^2].
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> Historical event. Attested by Bottéro (2001) [^1]; Dalley (2000) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Divination: Extispicy (reading entrails), astrology, dream interpretation" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Bottéro (2001) [^1]; Dalley (2000) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 26: "Flood narrative: Utnapishtim in the *Epic of Gilgamesh* (parallels Noah) [^2]" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Bottéro (2001) [^1]; Dalley (2000) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 27: "Afterlife: Gloomy underworld (*Kur*/*Irkalla*) for all, regardless of virtue" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Bottéro (2001) [^1]; Dalley (2000) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Period: ~4000 BCE – ~100 CE" - what is the source?
> Bottéro (2001) [^1], Dalley (2000) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Type: Polytheistic" - what is the source?
> Bottéro (2001) [^1], Dalley (2000) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Sacred sites: Ziggurats in every major city" - what is the source?
> Bottéro (2001) [^1], Dalley (2000) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 13: "Key texts: *Enuma Elish* (creation epic), *Epic of Gilgamesh*, *Descent of In..." - what is the source?
> Bottéro (2001) [^1], Dalley (2000) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 16: "An/Anu: Sky god, father of the gods" - what is the source?
> Bottéro (2001) [^1], Dalley (2000) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 17: "Enlil: God of wind and storms, chief deity of Nippur" - what is the source?
> Bottéro (2001) [^1], Dalley (2000) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Enki/Ea: God of wisdom and fresh water" - what is the source?
> Bottéro (2001) [^1], Dalley (2000) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 19: "Inanna/Ishtar: Goddess of love, war, and fertility" - what is the source?
> Bottéro (2001) [^1], Dalley (2000) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 20: "Marduk: Patron god of Babylon, supreme deity in the *Enuma Elish*" - what is the source?
> Bottéro (2001) [^1], Dalley (2000) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 24: "Ziggurats: Temple platforms connecting heaven and earth" - what is the source?
> Bottéro (2001) [^1], Dalley (2000) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 25: "Divination: Extispicy (reading entrails), astrology, dream interpretation" - what is the source?
> Bottéro (2001) [^1], Dalley (2000) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 27: "Afterlife: Gloomy underworld (*Kur*/*Irkalla*) for all, regardless of virtue" - what is the source?
> Bottéro (2001) [^1], Dalley (2000) [^2]
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 21: "Shamash/Utu: Sun god and god of justice [^1]" - Bottéro source from 2001 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Scholarship remains current. Bottéro (2001) findings are still accepted by modern Assyriologists.
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 26: "Flood narrative: Utnapishtim in the *Epic of Gilgamesh* (parallels Noah) [^2]" - Dalley source from 2000 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Scholarship remains current. Dalley (2000) findings are still accepted by modern Assyriologists.
---

## Review Queue

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id: 70f24f
repo_id: main
file_path: religions/roman-religion.md
file_hash: f22c6c92af5b6f7d0db4a441a8750236a0489bf9bbe93d336ef9492bb61813d8
title: Roman Religion
doc_type: religion
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.659909754+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.864853176+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:70f24f -->
# Roman Religion

# Roman Religion

## Overview
Roman religion was a polytheistic system that evolved from early Italic and Etruscan traditions, heavily influenced by Greek religion, and centered on state ritual, augury, and the maintenance of *pax deorum* (peace with the gods).

## Key Facts
- Period: ~8th century BCE – ~4th century CE (suppressed under Christianity) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Type: Polytheistic, with later imperial cult <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Key institutions: Pontifex Maximus, Vestal Virgins, College of Augurs <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Influenced by: Etruscan religion, Greek religion <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Major Deities
- Jupiter: King of the gods (Greek Zeus) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Juno: Queen of the gods (Greek Hera) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Mars: God of war (Greek Ares), father of Romulus <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Minerva: Goddess of wisdom (Greek Athena) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Venus: Goddess of love (Greek Aphrodite), ancestor of the Julian family <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Neptune, Mercury, Diana, Apollo, Vulcan, Ceres @t[~1998] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Key Practices
- Augury: Reading divine will through bird flight, entrails, and omens <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Vestal Virgins: Six priestesses maintaining the sacred flame of Vesta <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Imperial cult: Deification of emperors beginning with Julius Caesar (42 BCE) @t[=42 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- *Religio*: Proper observance of ritual obligations to maintain divine favor @t[~2003] [^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Mystery Cults
- Cult of Isis (from Egypt) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Mithraism (from Persia, popular with soldiers) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Cult of Cybele (from Anatolia) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

---
[^1]: Beard, M. et al. *Religions of Rome* (Cambridge, 1998)
[^2]: Scheid, J. *An Introduction to Roman Religion* (Indiana, 2003)---




- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 21: "Neptune, Mercury, Diana, Apollo, Vulcan, Ceres [^1]" - Beard source from 1998 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Scholarship remains current. Beard et al. (1998) findings are still accepted by modern historians.
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 27: "*Religio*: Proper observance of ritual obligations to maintain divine favor [^2]" - Scheid source from 2003 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Scholarship remains current. Scheid (2003) findings are still accepted by modern historians.
---

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  > 


id: 78e9e7
repo_id: main
file_path: religions/zoroastrianism.md
file_hash: 14423f5411a454a82418e41c01a203ca933523cf6290c8dad03348bbd88abb57
title: Zoroastrianism
doc_type: religion
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.659909754+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.867625562+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:78e9e7 -->
# Zoroastrianism

## Overview
Zoroastrianism is one of the world's oldest monotheistic religions, founded by the prophet Zoroaster (Zarathustra) in ancient Iran. It was the state religion of the Achaemenid, Parthian, and Sasanian empires, and the dominant religion of the Iranian world for over a millennium.

## Key Facts
- Founded by: Zoroaster (Zarathustra), date debated; majority of scholars favor ~1000 BCE, with plausible range from ~1200 BCE to mid-6th century BCE @t[~1000 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Region of origin: Eastern Iran or Central Asia <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Sacred text: *Avesta*, including the *Gathas* (hymns attributed to Zoroaster; oldest layer, composed by Zoroaster himself) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Supreme deity: Ahura Mazda ("Wise Lord") <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Priestly caste: Magi (originally a Median tribe; assumed Zoroastrian priestly functions under the Achaemenids) [^3]

## Core Beliefs
- Cosmic dualism: Ahura Mazda (good) vs. Angra Mainyu (evil) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Ethical triad: Good thoughts, good words, good deeds <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Aməša Spəntas: Six abstract divine entities surrounding Ahura Mazda, representing hypostases of his attributes (e.g., Good Mind, Truth, Devotion) [^3]
- Eschatology: Final judgment, resurrection, and triumph of good over evil; culminating in the *Frašō-kərəti* (final Renovation of the Cosmos) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Sacred fire as symbol of truth and righteousness [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Saošyant: A future savior figure who will redeem the world at the end of time [^3]

## Historical Influence
- State religion of the Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BCE) @t[550 BCE..330 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Arsacid (Parthian) period (247 BCE–224 CE) @t[247 BCE..224]: Zoroastrianism maintained but with religious tolerance; Avestan texts partially dispersed after Alexander's conquest [^3]
- Sasanian Empire (ca. 224–651 CE) @t[224..651]: Last Zoroastrian state; Sasanians established unity of church and state, greatly expanded sacred fire temples, and canonized the Avesta under Khosrow I (531–579 CE) [^3]
- Influenced Judaism, Christianity, and Islam (concepts of heaven/hell, angels, final judgment, savior figure); influence traceable from the 5th century BCE through the Parthian period [^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Declined after the Arab conquest of Iran (651 CE) @t[..=651] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Parsi migration: Zoroastrian refugees fled to India likely in the 8th–9th century CE, founding the Parsi community [^3]
- Surviving communities: Parsis in India (~50,000 per 2011 census), Zoroastrians in Iran, and diaspora communities (~100,000–120,000 worldwide) [^4] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

---
[^1]: Boyce, M. *Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices* (Routledge, 2001)
[^2]: Clark, P. *Zoroastrianism: An Introduction to an Ancient Faith* (1998)
[^3]: Malandra, W.W. "Zoroastrianism i. Historical Review up to the Arab Conquest." *Encyclopaedia Iranica* (2005, updated 2015). https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/zoroastrianism-i-historical-review/
[^4]: Wikipedia, "List of countries by Zoroastrian population." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_Zoroastrian_population
---

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id: 817dc2
repo_id: main
file_path: rulers/alexander-the-great.md
file_hash: b6e520643ec187b8c2365f17ecc56dd8cafd397e69d8ed95559d54af62f0d621
title: Alexander the Great
doc_type: ruler
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.652909728+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.870223717+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:817dc2 -->
# Alexander the Great

## Overview
Alexander III of Macedon (356–323 BCE), known as Alexander the Great, conquered the Persian Empire and created one of the largest empires in ancient history, spreading Greek culture from Egypt to India. @t[356 BCE..323 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Born: 356 BCE, Pella, Macedon @t[=356 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Died: 10–11 June 323 BCE, Babylon (age 32) @t[=323 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Reign: 336–323 BCE @t[336 BCE..323 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Father: Philip II of Macedon (II = Regnal number. Standard historical convention.) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Mother: Olympias, Epirote princess [^3]
- Tutor: Aristotle <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Titles: King of Macedon, Hegemon of the Hellenic League, Pharaoh of Egypt, Great King of Persia [^3]

## Major Campaigns
- Destruction of Thebes (335 BCE): Suppressed Greek revolt; assumed leadership of the League of Corinth @t[=335 BCE] [^1]
- Battle of Granicus (334 BCE): First victory against Persia in Anatolia @t[=334 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Battle of Issus (333 BCE): Defeated Darius III (III = Regnal number. Standard historical convention.) @t[=333 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Siege of Tyre (332 BCE): Seven-month siege of the island city @t[=332 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Battle of Gaugamela (331 BCE): Decisive defeat of the Persian Empire @t[=331 BCE] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Indian campaign (327–325 BCE): Defeated King Porus at the Hydaspes @t[327 BCE..325 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Death
Alexander died in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar II in Babylon on 10–11 June 323 BCE, confirmed by a Babylonian astronomical diary. @t[=323 BCE] The cause of death is debated: ancient sources (Arrian, Plutarch, Diodorus) describe a prolonged fever following heavy drinking; modern theories include typhoid fever and poisoning. [^4]

## Legacy
- Founded over 20 cities, most notably Alexandria in Egypt
- Spread Hellenistic culture across the Near East and Central Asia <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Empire divided among his generals (Diadochi) after his death @t[323 BCE..] [^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Ptolemaic Egypt, Seleucid Empire, and Antigonid Macedon emerged as successor states <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

---
[^1]: Arrian, *Anabasis of Alexander*
[^2]: Green, P. *Alexander of Macedon* (University of California Press, 1991)
[^3]: Plutarch, *Life of Alexander*; Arrian, *Anabasis of Alexander*
[^4]: Wikipedia, "Death of Alexander the Great" (citing Babylonian astronomical diary; Arrian, Plutarch, Diodorus)
---

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id: 06d51f
repo_id: main
file_path: rulers/ashoka.md
file_hash: 5d61af8be44022775d497fdaf31fd0883876fa0c3d05531c9e75d8b448bab783
title: Ashoka
doc_type: ruler
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.651909724+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.872965695+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:06d51f -->
# Ashoka

## Overview
Ashoka (~304–232 BCE), also known as Ashoka the Great, was the third Maurya emperor who, after the bloody conquest of Kalinga, converted to Buddhism and promoted non-violence through rock and pillar edicts across the Indian subcontinent. His name means "without sorrow" in Sanskrit. In his edicts he styled himself *Devanampiya Piyadassi* ("Beloved of the Gods, gracious of mien"). @t[304 BCE..232 BCE] [^3]

## Key Facts
- Born: ~304 BCE, Pataliputra @t[~304 BCE]
- Died: ~232 BCE @t[~232 BCE]
- Reign: ~268–232 BCE @t[268 BCE..232 BCE]
- Dynasty: Maurya
- Religion: Buddhism (after Kalinga War)
- Father: Bindusara (r. ~297–273 BCE)
- Grandfather: Chandragupta Maurya (founder of the empire)

## Family & Early Career
- Mother variously named Subhadrangi or Dharma in Buddhist sources [^3]
- First wife: Devi (also Vidisha-mahadevi), daughter of a merchant at Ujjain
- Children with Devi: son Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitra, both of whom led Buddhist missions to Sri Lanka [^3]
- Second queen: Karuvaki (also Kaurwaki); their son Tivala (also Tivara) is the only child of Ashoka mentioned by name in his own inscriptions — in the Queen's Edict [^4]
- Son Kunala (by another queen) was blinded by his stepmother Tishyaraksha and thus excluded from succession; his own son Samprati later ruled part of the empire [^4]
- As a young prince, suppressed a revolt at Taxila (~age 18), then served as viceroy at Ujjain [^3]
- Governed using the *Arthashastra* (political treatise attributed to Chanakya, Chandragupta's prime minister) as his administrative framework [^3]

## The Kalinga War
- Conquered Kalinga (~261 BCE), a kingdom on the east coast corresponding to modern Odisha and northern Andhra Pradesh, with devastating casualties (~100,000 killed, 150,000 deported per his own edicts) @t[~261 BCE]
- The carnage prompted his conversion to Buddhism [^1]
- His 13th Major Rock Edict records his remorse over the campaign

## Ashoka's Edicts
- 33 inscriptions total on pillars, boulders, and cave walls across the empire [^3]
- The edicts are the earliest written and datable texts from India [^4]
- Written in Prakrit, Greek, and Aramaic; two inscriptions were found at Kandahar (Chehel Zina, Afghanistan): the Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription (~260 BCE) in Greek and Aramaic (discovered 1957), and a separate Greek-only inscription (discovered 1963) @t[~260 BCE] [^2] [^5]
- Promoted *dhamma* (dharma): Non-violence, religious tolerance, welfare of subjects
- Established hospitals for humans and animals
- Sent Buddhist missionaries to Sri Lanka, Central Asia, and the Hellenistic world [^2]
- Ordered construction of stupas across the empire, including the famous stupa at Sanchi [^3]
- Undertook a pilgrimage to Buddhist sacred sites including Lumbini (birthplace of the Buddha), where he erected a pillar inscription (~249 BCE) exempting the village from taxes @t[~249 BCE] [^4]

## Empire Extent
- At its height stretched from modern-day Iran and Afghanistan in the west to Bangladesh in the east [^3]
- Capital at Pataliputra (modern Patna); provincial capitals at Taxila and Ujjain [^2]

## Legacy
- The Ashoka Chakra appears on India's national flag
- Lion Capital of Ashoka at Sarnath is India's national emblem
- Rediscovered by James Prinsep (1799–1840 CE) who deciphered Brahmi script in 1837
- Ashoka was immediately succeeded by his grandson Dasharatha Maurya (~232–224 BCE), as his son Kunala had been blinded and was ineligible; the empire began fragmenting under Dasharatha and subsequent weaker rulers [^4]
- The last Maurya emperor, Brihadratha, was assassinated by his general Pushyamitra Shunga in 185 BCE, who founded the Shunga dynasty, ending Maurya rule [^4]

---
[^1]: Thapar, R. *Aśoka and the Decline of the Mauryas* (Oxford, 1961)
[^2]: Singh, U. *A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India* (2008)
[^3]: Mark, J. J. "Ashoka the Great." *World History Encyclopedia*, 24 Jun 2020. https://www.worldhistory.org/Ashoka_the_Great/
[^4]: "Ashoka." *Wikipedia*. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashoka; "Tivala." *Wikipedia*. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tivala; "Edicts of Ashoka." *Wikipedia*. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edicts_of_Ashoka; "Kunala." *Wikipedia*. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunala; "Dasharatha Maurya." *Wikipedia*. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dasharatha_Maurya
[^5]: Olivelle, P. *Ashoka: Portrait of a Philosopher King* (Yale University Press, 2024); "Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription." *Wikipedia*. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kandahar_Bilingual_Rock_Inscription
---

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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Dynasty: Maurya" - what is the source?
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id: 4fb0a1
repo_id: main
file_path: rulers/augustus.md
file_hash: 6d8421fb181f05e96fcc62c059f6df2cc5828b8e622460064ae31f18bdf7dab3
title: Augustus
doc_type: ruler
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.650909720+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.875508703+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:4fb0a1 -->
# Augustus

## Overview
Augustus (63 BCE – 14 CE), born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was the first Roman emperor. He transformed Rome from a republic into an empire and inaugurated the Pax Romana. He is considered one of the most effective leaders in Roman history, ruling for over 40 years. @t[63 BCE..14]

## Key Facts
- Born: 23 September 63 BCE, Rome @t[=63 BCE] [^1]
- Died: 19 August 14 CE, Nola @t[=0014] [^1]
- Reign: 27 BCE – 14 CE @t[27 BCE..14] [^1]
- Original name: Gaius Octavius Thurinus; adopted as Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus [^1]
- Title: Augustus ("the revered one"), granted 27 BCE @t[=27 BCE] [^1]
- Also styled *Princeps* ("First Citizen") — his preferred public title [^5]
- Wife: Livia Drusilla (married 38 BCE; marriage lasted until his death) @t[=38 BCE] [^3]
- Children: Julia the Elder (by Scribonia); no biological sons [^3]

## Rise to Power
- Adopted heir of Julius Caesar (44 BCE) @t[=44 BCE] [^1]
- Second Triumvirate with Mark Antony and Lepidus (43 BCE) @t[=43 BCE] [^1]
- Battle of Philippi (42 BCE): Triumvirate defeated Caesar's assassins Brutus and Cassius @t[=42 BCE] [^5]
- Lepidus stripped of power (36 BCE), leaving Octavian and Antony as rivals @t[=36 BCE] [^5]
- Battle of Actium (31 BCE): Defeated Antony and Cleopatra @t[=31 BCE] [^1]
- Triple triumph celebrated in Rome (29 BCE) @t[=29 BCE] [^5]
- Senate granted him the title Augustus (27 BCE), marking the start of the Principate @t[=27 BCE] [^1]
- *Imperium Maius* (supreme power over all provinces) granted by Senate (19 BCE) @t[=19 BCE] [^5]
- Declared *Pater Patriae* ("Father of the Country") by the Senate (2 BCE) @t[=2 BCE] [^5]

## Achievements
- Pax Romana: Inaugurated ~200 years of relative peace [^2]
- Administrative reforms: Professionalized the army, created the Praetorian Guard [^1]
- Building program: "Found Rome a city of brick and left it a city of marble" [^2]; claimed to have restored or built 82 temples in a single year in his *Res Gestae Divi Augusti* [^5]
- Established the imperial succession system; adopted Tiberius as heir (4 CE) @t[=0004] [^3]
- Month of August named after him [^1]
- Appointed *pontifex maximus*, becoming both secular and religious head of the empire [^4]
- Revived traditional Roman religion: restored temples, reintroduced festivals (Lupercalia, Ludi Saeculares in 17 BCE) @t[=17 BCE] [^4]
- Social and moral reforms: *Lex Julia* legislation incentivized marriage and childbearing, penalized adultery as a civil crime [^4]
- Established the Ara Pacis Augustae (Altar of Augustan Peace), dedicated 9 BCE @t[=9 BCE] [^4]
- Inaugurated the Temple of Mars Ultor (2 BCE) to commemorate the Battle of Philippi @t[=2 BCE] [^5]
- Created the *Vigiles*, Rome's permanent firefighting force (6 CE) @t[=0006] [^5]
- Held *tribunicia potestas* (tribunician power) annually from 23 BCE, granting veto power over all legislation and personal sacrosanctity; alongside *Imperium Maius*, this formed the two constitutional pillars of the Principate @t[=23 BCE] [^5]
- Battle of Teutoburg Forest (9 CE): Germanic tribes under Arminius ambushed and annihilated three Roman legions (XVII, XVIII, XIX) under Publius Quinctilius Varus, halting Roman expansion east of the Rhine; Suetonius records Augustus crying out "Varus, give me back my legions!" @t[=0009] [^1]
- Patron of the arts: supported Virgil, whose *Aeneid* was composed during his reign [^5]
- Key general and second-in-command: Marcus Agrippa commanded the fleet at Actium and oversaw major building projects [^5]

## Res Gestae Divi Augusti
Augustus composed the *Res Gestae Divi Augusti* ("The Deeds of the Divine Augustus"), an autobiographical inscription recording his political and military achievements. Copies were inscribed on bronze tablets and displayed across the empire after his death. [^5]

## Succession
Augustus was succeeded by his adopted stepson Tiberius (14–37 CE), founding the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Subsequent emperors — Caligula, Claudius, and Nero — were all descendants or adoptees within this line. [^3]

After his death, Augustus was deified by the Senate and proclaimed a god in the Roman pantheon. [^5]

## Archaeology
University of Tokyo excavations at Somma Vesuviana (ongoing since 2002) have uncovered a sprawling ~40,000-square-foot villa buried by the 79 CE eruption of Mount Vesuvius. Researchers believe this may be the lost villa where Augustus died in 14 CE, as ancient sources describe him dying in a villa north of the mountain, in an area where his noble family is known to have had an estate. The site includes evidence of a private bathhouse and storage amphorae consistent with an elite residence. @t[~14] [^6]

In July 2025, the team unearthed five large furnaces used to heat an enormous bath complex — an unprecedented find at any Italian site. Lead archaeologist Mariko Muramatsu concluded that the scale of the structure points to imperial ownership: "There has never been a case where five large furnaces have been excavated from an Italian site. It makes sense as an explanation that no one else but the emperor could make such a magnificent feat possible." No indisputable direct epigraphic evidence linking the villa to Augustus has yet been found; excavations are ongoing. [^7]

---
[^1]: Suetonius, *The Twelve Caesars*
[^2]: Everitt, A. *Augustus: The Life of Rome's First Emperor* (2006)
[^3]: World History Encyclopedia, "Rome under the Julio-Claudian Dynasty" (worldhistory.org/article/1468), 2022
[^4]: Fife, S. "Augustus' Political, Social, & Moral Reforms." *World History Encyclopedia* (worldhistory.org/article/116), 2023
[^5]: Mark, J. J. "Augustus." *World History Encyclopedia* (worldhistory.org/augustus/), 2018
[^6]: Anderson, S. "Archaeologists May Have Found the Villa Where the Roman Emperor Augustus Died." *Smithsonian Magazine*, April 24, 2024 (smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/covered-in-ash-by-the-same-eruption-that-buried-pompeii-this-villa-may-have-belonged-to-emperor-augustus-180984212/)
[^7]: "More Evidence Suggests Villa on Mount Vesuvius Belonged to Rome's First Emperor." *Archaeology Magazine* (archaeology.org/news/2025/07/08/more-evidence-suggests-villa-on-mount-vesuvius-belonged-to-romes-first-emperor/), July 8, 2025
---

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- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 42: "Patron of the arts: supported Virgil, whose *Aeneid* was composed during his ..." - Mark source from 2018 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
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id: 801168
repo_id: main
file_path: rulers/cyrus-the-great.md
file_hash: 703bf83e377ddf3deabf824ce1cd423f8200d3f89995cdd9d5d14e02a78dc11c
title: Cyrus the Great
doc_type: ruler
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.651909724+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.881757054+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:801168 -->
# Cyrus the Great

## Overview
Cyrus II of Persia (Old Persian: *Kūruš*; ~600–530 BCE), known as Cyrus the Great, founded the Achaemenid Persian Empire and is celebrated for his tolerance toward conquered peoples. @t[600 BCE..530 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Born: ~600 BCE, Anshan (modern Iran) @t[~600 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Died: ~530 BCE (in battle against the Massagetae along the Syr Darya) @t[~530 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Reign: ~559–530 BCE @t[559 BCE..530 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Title: King of Kings, King of Anshan, King of Persia, King of Babylon <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Father: Cambyses I, King of Anshan [^3]
- Mother: Mandane, daughter of the Median king Astyages [^3]
- Successor: Cambyses II (son) [^1]

## Conquests
- Defeated the Medes under Astyages (~550 BCE) — his own maternal grandfather @t[~550 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 --> [^3]
- Conquered Lydia and captured Croesus (~547 BCE) @t[~547 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Conquered Babylon (539 BCE) — reportedly entered without a battle @t[=539 BCE] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Issued the Edict of Cyrus (~538 BCE): allowed exiled peoples, including the Jews, to return to their homelands and rebuild their temples @t[~538 BCE] [^2] [^4]

## Legacy
- Cyrus Cylinder: Clay cylinder inscribed in Akkadian cuneiform, discovered in 1879 in the Ésagila temple of Babylon; declares policies of religious tolerance and restoration of displaced peoples; sometimes called the "first charter of human rights" [^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Respected by Greeks (Xenophon's *Cyropaedia*), Jews (called "messiah" in Isaiah 45:1), and Persians <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Tomb at Pasargadae (UNESCO World Heritage Site, Fars Province, Iran) still stands <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Founded the largest empire the world had yet seen, stretching from Egypt to the Indus Valley <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Death attributed to battle with the Massagetae under their queen Tomyris (Herodotus, *Histories* I.214) [^3]

---
[^1]: Kuhrt, A. *The Persian Empire* (Routledge, 2007)
[^2]: British Museum, "The Cyrus Cylinder" (BM 90920)
[^3]: Herodotus, *Histories*, Book I (c. 440 BCE)
[^4]: Ezra 1:2–4 (Hebrew Bible); cf. Kuhrt (2007) [^1]
---

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id: 25cc1e
repo_id: main
file_path: rulers/hammurabi.md
file_hash: a7f221e3283d52c85fd393adfffd0beedd630f12c5f9b0271ad27197b94eef86
title: Hammurabi
doc_type: ruler
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.651909724+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.883971426+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:25cc1e -->
# Hammurabi

## Overview
Hammurabi (~1792–1750 BCE) was the sixth king of the First Babylonian Dynasty who transformed Babylon from a minor city-state into the dominant power in Mesopotamia. He is best known for the Code of Hammurabi. @t[1792 BCE..1750 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Reign: ~1792–1750 BCE @t[1792 BCE..1750 BCE]
- Title: King of Babylon; also styled "King of the Four Corners of the World" @t[1792 BCE..1750 BCE]
- Capital: Babylon
- Dynasty: First Dynasty of Babylon (Amorite)
- Father: Sin-Muballit (predecessor, abdicated due to failing health)
- Successor: Samsu-iluna (r. ~1750–1712 BCE) @t[~1750 BCE..~1712 BCE]

## Achievements
- Inherited a small kingdom (Babylon, Kish, Sippar, Borsippa) and expanded it through military campaigns and diplomacy [^3]
- Formed a temporary alliance with Larsa to repel an Elamite invasion, then turned against Larsa and absorbed its territories [^3]
- Conquered city-states of Larsa, Eshnunna, and Mari; ousted Ishme-Dagan I of Assyria, forcing his son Mut-Ashkur to pay tribute [^3]
- Was the first ruler to successfully govern all of Mesopotamia without revolt following his initial conquests [^3]
- Issued the Code of Hammurabi (~1754 BCE): 282 laws inscribed on a diorite stele @t[~1754 BCE] [^1]
- Improved irrigation systems and infrastructure; control of canal flow also served as a strategic tool against rival city-states [^3]
- Established Marduk as the supreme deity of Babylon
- Over 200 surviving royal letters document his direct administrative oversight of conquered territories, including correspondence with officials in Larsa [^3]

## The Code of Hammurabi
- The longest, best-organized, and best-preserved legal text from the ancient Near East [^3]
- Written in the Old Babylonian dialect of Akkadian cuneiform
- Structured as: poetic prologue, 282 case laws, and epilogue (~4,130 lines total) [^3]
- The stele's relief depicts Hammurabi receiving the laws from Shamash, the sun god of justice, symbolizing divine authority [^3]
- 282 laws covering property, trade, family, labor, and criminal matters
- Among the first legal codes to establish the presumption of innocence [^4]
- Principle of *lex talionis* ("an eye for an eye") with class-based distinctions
- Influenced later legal traditions, including Mosaic Law in the Hebrew Bible [^3]
- Stele discovered at Susa in 1901, now in the Louvre [^2]
- Not the earliest code (preceded by Code of Ur-Nammu) but the most complete

---
[^1]: Roth, M.T. *Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia Minor* (1997)
[^2]: Harper, R.F. *The Code of Hammurabi* (1904)
[^3]: World History Encyclopedia. "Hammurabi." https://www.worldhistory.org/hammurabi/ (accessed 2026)
[^4]: Wikipedia. "Hammurabi." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammurabi (accessed 2026)
---

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id: 5f1362
repo_id: main
file_path: rulers/julius-caesar.md
file_hash: 31642e82eee02aa53267c83cb4d663736f4f931c270c93ecfeb78db7e0cc1cad
title: Julius Caesar
doc_type: ruler
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.651909724+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.886413494+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:5f1362 -->
# Julius Caesar

## Overview
Gaius Julius Caesar (100–44 BCE) was a Roman general, statesman, and dictator whose conquest of Gaul and crossing of the Rubicon precipitated the end of the Roman Republic. @t[100 BCE..44 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Born: 12 or 13 July 100 BCE, Rome @t[=100 BCE]
- Died: 15 March 44 BCE, Rome (assassinated) @t[=44 BCE]
- Offices: Aedile (65 BCE), Pontifex Maximus (63 BCE), Praetor (62 BCE), Consul (59 BCE), Dictator perpetuo (44 BCE) @t[=59 BCE]
- Military: Conquered Gaul (58–50 BCE) @t[58 BCE..50 BCE]

## Early Career
- Aedile (65 BCE): Organized public games @t[=65 BCE] [^3]
- Pontifex Maximus (63 BCE): Elected chief priest of the College of Pontiffs; gained a house in the Roman Forum @t[=63 BCE] [^3]
- Praetor (62 BCE) @t[=62 BCE] [^3]
- Governor of Hispania Ulterior (61–60 BCE) @t[61 BCE..60 BCE] [^2]

## Major Events
- First Triumvirate: Alliance with Pompey and Crassus (60 BCE) @t[=60 BCE] [^2]
- Gallic Wars (58–50 BCE): Conquered Gaul, invaded Britain twice, bridged the Rhine @t[58 BCE..50 BCE] [^1]
- Crossing the Rubicon (49 BCE): Triggered civil war against Pompey @t[=49 BCE] [^2]
- Battle of Pharsalus (48 BCE): Defeated Pompey in Greece @t[=48 BCE] [^2]
- Battle of Thapsus (46 BCE): Defeated Pompeian forces in North Africa @t[=46 BCE] [^2]
- Battle of Munda (45 BCE): Final defeat of Pompeian resistance in Spain @t[=45 BCE] [^2]
- Appointed dictator perpetuo (February 44 BCE) @t[=44 BCE] [^2]
- Assassinated on the Ides of March (15 March 44 BCE) by Brutus, Cassius, and other senators @t[=44 BCE] [^2]

## Legacy
- Julian calendar reform (46 BCE): Replaced the Roman lunar calendar with a 365-day solar calendar @t[=46 BCE] [^3]
- Refounded Carthage as a Roman colony (46 BCE) @t[=46 BCE] [^2]
- Granted citizenship to many provincials, including Gauls and Spaniards @t[49 BCE..44 BCE] [^2]
- Deified by the Roman Senate (42 BCE) @t[=42 BCE] [^3]
- His adopted heir Octavian became Augustus, first Roman emperor (27 BCE) @t[=27 BCE] [^2]
- Month of July renamed Iulius in his honor (44 BCE) @t[=44 BCE] [^3]
- Had a son, Caesarion, with Cleopatra VII of Egypt @t[47 BCE..30 BCE] [^2]

---
[^1]: Caesar, *Commentarii de Bello Gallico*
[^2]: Goldsworthy, A. *Caesar: Life of a Colossus* (Yale, 2006)
[^3]: Suetonius, *De Vita Caesarum: Divus Iulius* (~121 CE)
---

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id: 0648e6
repo_id: main
file_path: rulers/pericles.md
file_hash: 2ad5004aa567eb555e5db9ac117fb0a5fad6084f318dbd97c4076b52a78b88df
title: Pericles
doc_type: ruler
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.650909720+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.888752280+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:0648e6 -->
# Pericles

## Overview
Pericles (Greek: Περικλῆς, "surrounded by glory"; ~495–429 BCE) was an Athenian statesman and general who led Athens during its Golden Age, championing democracy, arts, and the construction of the Parthenon. Thucydides, his contemporary, acclaimed him "the first citizen of Athens." [^2]

## Key Facts
- Born: ~495 BCE, Athens @t[~495 BCE]
- Died: 429 BCE, Athens (plague) @t[=429 BCE]
- Role: Strategos (general), elected repeatedly ~443–429 BCE @t[443 BCE..429 BCE]
- Political alignment: Democratic faction
- Family: Son of Xanthippus (general, hero of the Persian Wars) and Agariste (niece of Cleisthenes; Alcmaeonidae clan) [^1]

## Early Life and Education
- Descended from the aristocratic Alcmaeonidae family through his mother Agariste [^1]
- Music teacher: Damon of Oa (though Aristotle names Pythoclides); Damon was later ostracized partly due to his association with Pericles [^1]
- Intellectual mentor: Anaxagoras, the philosopher, who shaped Pericles' rationalist outlook [^1]
- As a young man (~472 BCE), funded the production of Aeschylus's *The Persae* as choregos @t[~472 BCE] [^1]
- Entered politics around 470 BCE; initially introverted, he avoided public appearances in his youth @t[~470 BCE] [^4]

## Rise to Power
- Aligned with Ephialtes to curtail the powers of the Areopagus (~462–461 BCE), marking the start of radical Athenian democracy @t[462 BCE..461 BCE] [^2]
- Led the prosecution of Cimon in 463 BCE on charges of corruption in his dealings with Macedon; Cimon was acquitted but ostracized in 461 BCE, clearing the path for Pericles' dominance @t[=463 BCE] [^2]
- After Ephialtes' assassination (461 BCE), became the preeminent leader of Athens @t[=461 BCE]
- The period of his leadership (~461–429 BCE) is known as the "Age of Pericles" @t[461 BCE..429 BCE] [^2]
- In 444 BCE, Thucydides son of Melesias (not the historian) led the conservative faction against Pericles, accusing him of misusing Delian League funds for the building program; Pericles prevailed and Thucydides was ostracized in 442 BCE @t[=442 BCE] [^1]

## Achievements
- Expanded Athenian democracy: Introduced pay for jury service, opening participation to poorer citizens [^1]
- Citizenship law (451 BCE): Restricted Athenian citizenship to those born of two Athenian citizen parents @t[=451 BCE] [^1]
- Congress Decree (449 BCE): Invited all Greek city-states to a pan-Hellenic congress to discuss rebuilding temples destroyed by Persia; Sparta refused to attend, stalling the initiative @t[=449 BCE] [^4]
- Commissioned the Parthenon, Propylaea (monumental gateway to the Acropolis, begun 437 BCE), and other Acropolis buildings (~447–432 BCE), with sculptor Phidias overseeing the artistic program @t[447 BCE..432 BCE] [^1]
- Also built the Odeon of Pericles (~446 BCE), a large roofed music hall near the Acropolis used for musical contests @t[~446 BCE] [^4]
- Led the Delian League, transforming it into an Athenian empire [^2]
- Funded free theater access for all citizens, reinforcing cultural and civic participation [^1]
- Funeral Oration (431 BCE): Celebrated Athenian democracy and values @t[=431 BCE] [^2]
- Led Athenian forces in the siege of Samos (440 BCE) @t[=440 BCE] [^4]
- Founded the Panhellenic colony of Thurii in southern Italy (444 BCE) as a cleruch settlement @t[=444 BCE] [^4]

## Personal Life
- Companion: Aspasia of Miletus (~470–410 BCE), an intellectual and rhetorician; could not legally marry her under his own citizenship law [^1]
- Divorced his first wife (name unknown) around 445 BCE to live with Aspasia @t[~445 BCE] [^4]
- Had two legitimate sons, Paralus and Xanthippus, by his first wife; both died in the plague of 429 BCE [^1]
- Had a son, Pericles the Younger, by Aspasia; citizenship was granted to him by special decree [^3]

## First Peloponnesian War (460–446 BCE)
- Athens fought Sparta and its allies (primarily Corinth) for supremacy in Greece @t[460 BCE..446 BCE] [^2]
- Pericles commanded Athenian forces in multiple engagements; neither side gained a decisive advantage [^4]
- Cimon, returning from exile in 451 BCE, brokered a truce between Athens and Sparta on Pericles' behalf @t[=451 BCE] [^4]
- The war concluded with the Thirty Years' Peace (446/445 BCE), in which Athens relinquished most of its mainland possessions acquired since 460 BCE, and both sides agreed not to recruit from the other's allies @t[=446 BCE] [^2]

## Personal Attacks (~438–431 BCE)
- Just before the Peloponnesian War, Pericles and his associates faced a series of judicial attacks aimed at undermining him politically [^1]
- Phidias, overseer of the Acropolis building program, was accused of embezzling gold meant for the statue of Athena Parthenos and of impiety (~438 BCE); he reportedly died in prison, though this is disputed @t[~438 BCE] [^1]
- Aspasia was charged with impiety (asebeia); Pericles reportedly wept in court to secure her acquittal [^1]
- Anaxagoras, Pericles' philosophical mentor, was also attacked by the assembly for his religious views [^1]
- These prosecutions are widely interpreted as politically motivated attacks on Pericles through his associates [^1]

## Peloponnesian War
- Pericles proposed the Megarian Decree (~432 BCE), a trade embargo excluding Megarian merchants from Athenian markets and ports; Sparta demanded its retraction as a condition for peace @t[~432 BCE] [^2]
- His defensive strategy against Sparta (retreating behind the Long Walls) led to overcrowding in Athens [^2]
- Plague of Athens (430–426 BCE) killed ~25% of the population, including Pericles himself in 429 BCE @t[430 BCE..426 BCE] [^2]
- Was tried and fined by the Athenians during the war, then re-elected strategos shortly before his death [^2]

## Legacy
- The sculptor Kresilas created an idealized portrait bust of Pericles (~425 BCE), widely copied in antiquity @t[~425 BCE] [^4]
- Thucydides argued that Pericles' successors, seeking popularity over effectiveness, led Athens to ruin — culminating in defeat by Sparta in 404 BCE [^2]

---
[^1]: Plutarch, *Life of Pericles*
[^2]: Thucydides, *History of the Peloponnesian War* 2.35–46
[^3]: Plutarch, *Life of Pericles*; cf. Researchgate, "Pericles the Younger and the Citizenship Law" (2008)
[^4]: Mark, Joshua J. "Pericles." *World History Encyclopedia*, 28 Mar 2018. https://www.worldhistory.org/pericles/
---

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id: 68ae1b
repo_id: main
file_path: rulers/qin-shi-huang.md
file_hash: 518ab1ec73f7ccafa43650fe00d6a983dbc6c61e88a0b95b0b3722932d3bb0ef
title: Qin Shi Huang
doc_type: ruler
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.650909720+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.893617843+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:68ae1b -->
# Qin Shi Huang

## Overview
Qin Shi Huang (259–210 BCE) was the first emperor of a unified China, founding the Qin dynasty and establishing centralized imperial governance that would endure for over two millennia. @t[259 BCE..210 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Born: February 259 BCE, Handan (capital of Zhao) @t[=259 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Died: 12 July 210 BCE (age 49) @t[=210 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- King of Qin: 247–221 BCE @t[247 BCE..221 BCE] [^1]
- Reign as emperor: 221–210 BCE @t[221 BCE..210 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Original name: Ying Zheng (also known as Zhao Zheng) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Dynasty: Qin <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Chief minister: Li Si [^1]

## Achievements
- Unified the Warring States into a single empire (221 BCE) @t[=221 BCE] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Standardized weights, measures, currency, and writing across China @t[221 BCE..210 BCE] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Began construction of the Great Wall by linking existing fortifications @t[~221 BCE..210 BCE] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Built an extensive road and canal network @t[221 BCE..210 BCE] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Expanded the empire south into Yue lands (modern Hunan and Guangdong) and conquered the Ordos Plateau from the Xiongnu @t[221 BCE..210 BCE] [^1]
- Terracotta Army: ~8,000 life-sized warrior figures, 130 chariots with 520 horses, and 150 cavalry horses guarding his mausoleum; discovered 1974; main tomb mound remains unexcavated [^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Controversies
- Burning of books and burying of scholars (~213–212 BCE) @t[213 BCE..212 BCE] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Harsh Legalist governance @t[221 BCE..210 BCE] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Massive forced labor for construction projects @t[221 BCE..210 BCE] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Legacy
The Qin dynasty collapsed shortly after his death (206 BCE), but his unification model was adopted by the succeeding Han dynasty. @t[=206 BCE]

---
[^1]: Sima Qian, *Records of the Grand Historian* (*Shiji*)
[^2]: Portal, J. *The First Emperor: China's Terracotta Army* (British Museum, 2007)



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id: 009548
repo_id: main
file_path: rulers/ramesses-ii.md
file_hash: 6c818956aa969064fec3a44584757d7e13d44ee0f759ec896bdb237e4b9dc0e9
title: Ramesses II
doc_type: ruler
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.651909724+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.896378077+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:009548 -->
# Ramesses II

## Overview
Ramesses II (~1303–1213 BCE), also known as Ramesses the Great, was the third pharaoh of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt and one of the most powerful and celebrated rulers of ancient Egypt. His Egyptian regnal name was Usermaatre Setepenre; in ancient Greek sources he is called Ozymandias, derived from the first part of that name. @t[1303 BCE..1213 BCE] [^3]

## Key Facts
- Born: ~1303 BCE @t[~1303 BCE]
- Reign: ~1279–1213 BCE (66 years, one of the longest in Egyptian history) @t[1279 BCE..1213 BCE]
- Dynasty: 19th Dynasty, New Kingdom
- Capital: Pi-Ramesses (Nile Delta)
- Died: ~1213 BCE, age ~90 @t[~1213 BCE]
- Principal wife: Nefertari (Nefertari Meritmut)
- Tomb: KV7, Valley of the Kings

## Major Events
- Battle of Kadesh (~1274 BCE): Fought the Hittites under Muwatalli II; indecisive but claimed as victory @t[~1274 BCE] [^1]
- Treaty of Kadesh (~1259 BCE): Signed peace with Hittite king Hattusili III; sealed by a diplomatic marriage to a Hittite princess @t[~1259 BCE]
- Led at least 15 military campaigns in the Levant, reasserting Egyptian control over Canaan and Phoenicia [^3]
- Led multiple campaigns into Nubia, commemorated in inscriptions at Beit el-Wali and Gerf Hussein [^3]
- Built Abu Simbel temples in Nubia
- Built the Ramesseum (mortuary temple) at Thebes
- Expanded Karnak and Luxor temples
- Completed the hypostyle hall at Karnak

## Legacy
- Fathered over 100 children
- His mummy was discovered in the Deir el-Bahari cache (TT320) in 1881 [^2]; analysis reveals severe arthritis, arteriosclerosis, and dental abscesses consistent with advanced age [^3]
- His original burial comprised three nested coffins: an inner gilded wooden coffin, an intermediary alabaster coffin, and an outer granite sarcophagus; the body was transferred to a plain wooden coffin in antiquity to protect it from grave robbers [^5]
- His original granite outer sarcophagus was identified in 2024 by Egyptologist Frédéric Payraudeau (Sorbonne University) from a fragment discovered in 2009 at a Coptic monastery in Abydos; the fragment had been reused by high priest Menkheperre during the 21st Dynasty (~1069–943 BCE), who overwrote much of the original hieroglyphic text, obscuring the royal cartouche [^4][^5]
- Often identified (controversially) with the pharaoh of the Exodus narrative
- Nine subsequent pharaohs took the name Ramesses; he was referred to as the "Great Ancestor" by successor pharaohs [^3]

## Recent Discoveries
- Ramesseum excavations (2025): A joint Egyptian-French expedition (operating since 1991) uncovered the "House of Life" — an ancient scientific school — inside the mortuary temple complex, along with administrative buildings, workshops (kitchens, bakeries, stonework, textile production), and storage cellars for olive oil, honey, and wine; Third Intermediate Period shaft tombs to the northeast yielded well-preserved canopic jars, ushabti figurines, and coffins [^6]
- Hermopolis Magna statue (2024): A joint Egyptian-American mission at El Ashmunein (ancient Hermopolis Magna) recovered the upper torso (~3.8 m tall) of a massive limestone seated statue of Ramesses II; the lower half had been found by German archaeologist Günther Roeder in 1930; the reunited statue stands ~7 m tall and was likely part of a temple entrance dedicated to Thoth; University of Colorado Boulder participated in documentation [^7]

---
[^1]: Kitchen, K.A. *Pharaoh Triumphant: The Life and Times of Ramesses II* (1982)
[^2]: Tyldesley, J. *Ramesses: Egypt's Greatest Pharaoh* (2000)
[^3]: Wikipedia contributors. "Ramesses II." *Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia*. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramesses_II
[^4]: "Ramesses II — Original Sarcophagus Identified Within the Valley of Kings." *Ancient Origins* (2025). https://www.ancient-origins.net/news-history-archaeology/ramesses-ii-original-sarcophagus-identified-within-valley-kings-0020845
[^5]: Steinmeyer, N. "The Sarcophagus of Ramesses the Great." *Biblical Archaeology Society* (May 2025). https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/ancient-cultures/ancient-egypt/the-sarcophagus-of-ramesses-the-great/
[^6]: Steinmeyer, N. "Revealing the Mortuary Temple of Ramesses II." *Biblical Archaeology Society* (April 2025). https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/ancient-cultures/ancient-egypt/revealing-the-mortuary-temple-of-ramesses-ii/
[^7]: "Lost for 96 Years Beneath the Nile, the Missing Half of a Legendary Egyptian Statue Has Finally Been Found." *The Daily Galaxy* (February 2026). https://dailygalaxy.com/2026/02/ramesses-ii-legendary-statue-finally-found/
---

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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Treaty of Kadesh (~1259 BCE): Signed peace with Hittite king Hattusili III; s..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 21: "Built Abu Simbel temples in Nubia" - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 22: "Built the Ramesseum (mortuary temple) at Thebes" - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 23: "Expanded Karnak and Luxor temples" - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 24: "Completed the hypostyle hall at Karnak" - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 31: "Often identified (controversially) with the pharaoh of the Exodus narrative" - what is the source?
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  > 


id: e55b29
repo_id: main
file_path: rulers/sargon-of-akkad.md
file_hash: d66a49208a4eba7451cfd8b469e716e4d0b432f3965e9bf2c873ef98fdddf346
title: Sargon of Akkad
doc_type: ruler
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.652909728+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.899038691+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:e55b29 -->
# Sargon of Akkad

## Overview
Sargon of Akkad (~2334–2279 BCE) founded the Akkadian Empire, the first empire in recorded history. His rise from humble origins to ruler of all Mesopotamia became legendary. @t[~2334 BCE..~2279 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Reign: ~2334–2279 BCE @t[~2334 BCE..~2279 BCE]
- Also known as: Sargon the Great; throne name Sharru-kin (Akkadian: "True King" or "Legitimate King") [^3]
- Title: King of Akkad, King of Kish, King of the Four Quarters
- Capital: Akkad/Agade (location undiscovered; believed near modern Baghdad) [^3]
- Empire: United Sumerian and Akkadian city-states across Mesopotamia
- Reigned 56 years per the Sumerian King List; died of natural causes [^3]

## Life and Reign
- Birth legend: Set adrift in a basket on the Euphrates as an infant (parallels Moses narrative) [^1]
- Rose to power as cupbearer to Ur-Zababa, the King of Kish
- Conquered Lugal-zage-si of Uruk, unifying Sumer; paraded him in chains through Nippur [^3]
- Conducted military campaigns from the Mediterranean to the Persian Gulf, including Mari, Ashur, Nineveh, and possibly Asia Minor [^3]
- Appointed his daughter Enheduanna (~2285–2250 BCE) as high priestess of Ur — she became the first named author in history [^2]
- Maintained a standing army of ~5,400 soldiers based in Akkad [^3]

## Administration
- Placed trusted governors ("Citizens of Akkad") in over 65 cities across the empire [^3]
- Standardized weights and measures for trade and commerce [^3]
- Created the first known postal system: clay tablets sealed inside clay envelopes addressed to recipients [^3]
- Promoted the Akkadian language and cuneiform script as administrative tools across conquered territories [^4]

## Successors
- Son Rimush succeeded him, reigning ~9 years @t[~2279 BCE..~2270 BCE]
- Son Manishtusu followed, reigning ~15 years @t[~2270 BCE..~2255 BCE]
- Grandson Naram-Sin (r. ~2261–2224 BCE) brought the empire to its greatest extent @t[~2261 BCE..~2224 BCE] [^3]

## Primary Sources
- *The Legend of Sargon of Akkad* — his purported autobiography, preserved in the Library of Ashurbanipal at Nineveh; rediscovered in the 19th century CE [^3]
- Copper head of Sargon found at Nineveh (1931 CE), now in the Iraq Museum, Baghdad [^5]

## Legacy
Sargon became a legendary figure in Mesopotamian tradition, with later kings modeling themselves after him. Scholar Paul Kriwaczek notes he was regarded as "a semi-sacred figure, the patron saint of all subsequent empires in the Mesopotamian realm" for at least 1,500 years after his death. [^3]

---
[^1]: Westenholz, J.G. *Legends of the Kings of Akkade* (1997)
[^2]: Hallo, W.W. & van Dijk, J.J.A. *The Exaltation of Inanna* (1968)
[^3]: Mark, J.J. "Sargon of Akkad." *World History Encyclopedia* (2009). worldhistory.org/Sargon_of_Akkad/
[^4]: "Sargon of Akkad: The Architect of the First Empire." ancientcivs.blog (2025). ancientcivs.blog/sargon-of-akkad/
[^5]: "Sargon of Akkad." *Encyclopaedia Britannica*. britannica.com/biography/Sargon
---


- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Reign: ~2334–2279 BCE" - when was this true?
> 2279 BCE event. Attested by Westenholz (1997) [^1]; Hallo (1968) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Title: King of Akkad, King of Kish, King of the Four Quarters" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Westenholz (1997) [^1]; Hallo (1968) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Capital: Akkad (location undiscovered)" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Westenholz (1997) [^1]; Hallo (1968) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 13: "Empire: United Sumerian and Akkadian city-states" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Westenholz (1997) [^1]; Hallo (1968) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 16: "Birth legend: Set adrift in a basket on the Euphrates as an infant (parallels..." - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Westenholz (1997) [^1]; Hallo (1968) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 17: "Rose to power as cupbearer to the King of Kish" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Westenholz (1997) [^1]; Hallo (1968) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Conquered Lugal-zage-si of Uruk, unifying Sumer" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Westenholz (1997) [^1]; Hallo (1968) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Conducted military campaigns from the Mediterranean to the Persian Gulf" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Westenholz (1997) [^1]; Hallo (1968) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 20: "Appointed his daughter Enheduanna as high priestess of Ur — she became the ..." - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Westenholz (1997) [^1]; Hallo (1968) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Reign: ~2334–2279 BCE" - what is the source?
> Westenholz (1997) [^1] and Hallo & van Dijk (1968) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Title: King of Akkad, King of Kish, King of the Four Quarters" - what is the source?
> Westenholz (1997) [^1] and Hallo & van Dijk (1968) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Capital: Akkad (location undiscovered)" - what is the source?
> Westenholz (1997) [^1] and Hallo & van Dijk (1968) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 13: "Empire: United Sumerian and Akkadian city-states" - what is the source?
> Westenholz (1997) [^1] and Hallo & van Dijk (1968) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 17: "Rose to power as cupbearer to the King of Kish" - what is the source?
> Westenholz (1997) [^1] and Hallo & van Dijk (1968) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Conquered Lugal-zage-si of Uruk, unifying Sumer" - what is the source?
> Westenholz (1997) [^1] and Hallo & van Dijk (1968) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 19: "Conducted military campaigns from the Mediterranean to the Persian Gulf" - what is the source?
> Westenholz (1997) [^1] and Hallo & van Dijk (1968) [^2].
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 16: "Birth legend: Set adrift in a basket on the Euphrates as an infant (parallels..." - Westenholz source from 1997 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Still accurate. Westenholz (1997) remains a standard reference.
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 20: "Appointed his daughter Enheduanna as high priestess of Ur — she became the ..." - Hallo source from 1968 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Still accurate. Hallo & van Dijk (1968) remains a standard reference.
---

## Review Queue

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- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 9: "Also known as: Sargon the Great; throne name Sharru-kin (Akkadian: "True King..." - Mark source from 2009 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 11: "Capital: Akkad/Agade (location undiscovered; believed near modern Baghdad) [^3]" - Mark source from 2009 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
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- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 13: "Reigned 56 years per the Sumerian King List; died of natural causes [^3]" - Mark source from 2009 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 16: "Birth legend: Set adrift in a basket on the Euphrates as an infant (parallels..." - Westenholz source from 1997 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
  > 

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  > 

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  > 

- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 20: "Appointed his daughter Enheduanna (~2285–2250 BCE) as high priestess of Ur ..." - Hallo source from 1968 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 21: "Maintained a standing army of ~5,400 soldiers based in Akkad [^3]" - Mark source from 2009 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 24: "Placed trusted governors ("Citizens of Akkad") in over 65 cities across the e..." - Mark source from 2009 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 25: "Standardized weights and measures for trade and commerce [^3]" - Mark source from 2009 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 26: "Created the first known postal system: clay tablets sealed inside clay envelo..." - Mark source from 2009 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 27: "Promoted the Akkadian language and cuneiform script as administrative tools a..." - Unknown source from 2025 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 32: "Grandson Naram-Sin (r. ~2261–2224 BCE) brought the empire to its greatest e..." - Mark source from 2009 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 35: "*The Legend of Sargon of Akkad* — his purported autobiography, preserved in..." - Mark source from 2009 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
  > 


id: 543601
repo_id: main
file_path: technologies/bronze-working.md
file_hash: 8a84702eaab9f80fe69dbd146e6738693a25a81641cf343b27b3fc6d6e9cba03
title: Bronze Working
doc_type: technologie
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.660909758+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:56.598485864+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:543601 -->
# Bronze Working

## Overview
Bronze working — the alloying of copper with tin — defined the Bronze Age (~3300–1200 BCE) and enabled advances in weaponry, tools, and art across Eurasia. @t[~3300 BCE..1200 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Period: ~3300–1200 BCE (Bronze Age) @t[~3300 BCE..1200 BCE]
- Composition: ~88% copper, ~12% tin (tin-bronze); earlier arsenical bronze used arsenic instead of tin @t[~3300 BCE..1200 BCE]
- Earliest tin-bronze: Mesopotamia and the Caucasus, ~3300 BCE @t[~3300 BCE]
- Spread to: Egypt, Indus Valley, China, Europe

## Development
- Copper smelting preceded bronze by ~2,000 years (Chalcolithic period) @t[~5300 BCE..3300 BCE]
- Arsenical bronze (copper + arsenic) preceded tin-bronze and was used widely in the early Bronze Age; tin-bronze eventually replaced it due to superior strength and non-toxic production [^3]
- Tin was scarce; long-distance trade networks developed to source it (Cornwall, Afghanistan, Southeast Asia) [^1]
- Lost-wax casting (cire perdue) technique enabled complex shapes; earliest known examples date to ~4500 BCE (Varna Necropolis, Bulgaria), with widespread bronze use from ~3500 BCE in Mesopotamia @t[~4500 BCE] [^4]
- Chinese bronze casting (Shang dynasty, ~1600 BCE) achieved exceptional sophistication, producing large ritual vessels via piece-mold casting rather than lost-wax @t[~1600 BCE..1046 BCE] [^2]
- Disruption of tin trade routes is considered a contributing factor to the Bronze Age Collapse (~1200 BCE), accelerating the transition to iron [^5]

## Impact
- Superior weapons: Swords, spearheads, armor @t[~3300 BCE..1200 BCE]
- Agricultural tools: Plows, sickles @t[~3300 BCE..1200 BCE]
- Monumental art: Statuary, ritual vessels @t[~3300 BCE..1200 BCE]
- Drove long-distance trade networks for tin and copper @t[~3300 BCE..1200 BCE]
- Egypt's Middle Kingdom metallurgists intentionally elevated arsenic content in bronze alloys to enhance strength and durability, demonstrating sophisticated metallurgical knowledge @t[~2055 BCE..1650 BCE] [^6]

---
[^1]: Muhly, J.D. "Sources of Tin and the Beginnings of Bronze Metallurgy" *American Journal of Archaeology* 89 (1985)
[^2]: Bagley, R. *Shang Ritual Bronzes in the Arthur M. Sackler Collections* (1987)
[^3]: Lechtman, H. "Arsenic Bronze: Dirty Copper or Chosen Alloy?" *Journal of Field Archaeology* 23 (1996)
[^4]: Wikiwand, "Lost-wax casting" — oldest known examples ~4550–4450 BCE, Varna Necropolis, Bulgaria
[^5]: Cline, E.H. *1177 B.C.: The Year Civilization Collapsed* (2014) — Bronze Age Collapse and trade disruption
[^6]: Heritage Daily, "Study reveals arsenical bronze production during Egypt's Middle Kingdom" (2025)
---

## Review Queue

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id: c491ef
repo_id: main
file_path: technologies/iron-smelting.md
file_hash: c5de576b16b46a793e8ff2ba25c2aa77431cdd9e2b6aed3e0342d45c33ed6abd
title: Iron Smelting
doc_type: technologie
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.660909758+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:56.602455357+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:c491ef -->
# Iron Smelting

## Overview
The development of iron smelting technology (~1200 BCE onward) ushered in the Iron Age, making metal tools and weapons accessible beyond elite classes and transforming agriculture, warfare, and society. @t[~1200 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Transition period: ~1200–800 BCE (varies by region) @t[1200 BCE..800 BCE] [^1]
- Earliest iron smelting: Anatolia (Hittites), ~1500 BCE (limited use) @t[~1500 BCE] [^1]
- Widespread adoption: After the Bronze Age Collapse (~1200 BCE) @t[~1200 BCE] [^1]
- Key innovation: Carburization (adding carbon to create steel) [^1]

## Development
- Earliest surviving iron artifacts (4th millennium BCE, Egypt) were made from meteoritic iron-nickel, not smelted ore @t[~3000 BCE] [^1]
- Hittites may have been early innovators of iron smelting, though evidence is debated [^1]
- Iron became widespread after the Bronze Age Collapse disrupted tin trade routes [^1]
- Chinese independently developed cast iron by ~500 BCE (bloomery iron in the West until medieval period) @t[~500 BCE] [^2]
- Sub-Saharan Africa: the Nok culture (present-day Nigeria) may have independently developed iron smelting ~800–1000 BCE; evidence from Termit (Niger) pushes possible dates to ~1500 BCE, though whether this was independent invention or diffusion remains debated @t[~1000 BCE..800 BCE] [^3]
- South India developed wootz steel (crucible steel) by the mid-1st millennium BCE (~500–300 BCE) and was exporting it to China, Africa, the Middle East, and Europe by the 4th century BCE @t[~500 BCE..300 BCE] [^4]

## Impact
- Democratized access to metal tools (iron ore is abundant, unlike tin) [^1]
- Improved agricultural productivity (iron plows) [^1]
- Transformed warfare (iron weapons, armor) [^1]
- Enabled deforestation and land clearing at scale [^1]

---
[^1]: Waldbaum, J. *From Bronze to Iron* (1978)
[^2]: Wagner, D. *Iron and Steel in Ancient China* (Brill, 1993)
[^3]: Alpern, S.B. "Did They or Didn't They Invent It? Iron in Sub-Saharan Africa" *History in Africa* 32 (2005); Wikipedia, "Iron metallurgy in Africa"
[^4]: Srinivasan, S. & Ranganathan, S. *India's Legendary Wootz Steel* (National Institute of Advanced Studies, 2004); Wikipedia, "Wootz steel"
---

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- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 22: "Democratized access to metal tools (iron ore is abundant, unlike tin) [^1]" - Waldbaum source from 1978 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
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- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 23: "Improved agricultural productivity (iron plows) [^1]" - Waldbaum source from 1978 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
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- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 24: "Transformed warfare (iron weapons, armor) [^1]" - Waldbaum source from 1978 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
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- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 25: "Enabled deforestation and land clearing at scale [^1]" - Waldbaum source from 1978 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
  > 


id: dcee65
repo_id: main
file_path: technologies/roman-aqueducts.md
file_hash: da07fc17f6b43533675ae9a69990681268f484769c3be7beb68570080d9557b9
title: Roman Aqueducts
doc_type: technologie
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.660909758+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:56.604946622+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:dcee65 -->
# Roman Aqueducts

## Overview
Roman aqueducts were engineering marvels that transported water over long distances using gravity, supplying cities with fresh water for drinking, bathing, and sanitation. Rome alone had 11 aqueducts delivering ~1 million cubic meters daily. Across the empire, Romans built over 200 aqueducts supplying cities from Britain to Mesopotamia. [^3]

## Key Facts
- First Roman aqueduct: Aqua Appia (312 BCE) @t[=312 BCE]
- Total aqueducts serving Rome: 11 (by 226 CE) @t[312 BCE..226 CE]
- Combined length: ~500 km (mostly underground) @t[312 BCE..226 CE]
- Daily water delivery to Rome: ~1 million cubic meters [^1]
- Last aqueduct built for Rome: Aqua Alexandrina (226 CE) @t[=226 CE]

## Engineering
- Gravity-fed: Maintained a consistent gradient (~1:200 to 1:4800) @t[312 BCE..476 CE]
- Mostly underground channels; iconic arched bridges were only ~5% of total length
- Used *opus caementicium* (Roman concrete) and lead pipes (*fistulae*)
- Settling tanks and distribution castella regulated flow
- Water also supported mining operations, milling, farms, and gardens [^3]

## Notable Aqueducts
- Aqua Appia (312 BCE): First aqueduct, built by Appius Claudius Caecus @t[=312 BCE] [^1]
- Aqua Marcia (144 BCE): Longest serving Rome at ~91 km @t[=144 BCE] [^1]
- Aqua Claudia (52 CE): Begun by Caligula (38 CE), completed by Claudius; ~69 km long @t[38 CE..52 CE] [^3]
- Pont du Gard (France, ~19 BCE): Three-tiered bridge, 49 m high @t[~19 BCE] [^2]
- Aqueduct of Segovia (Spain, late 1st–early 2nd century CE): Still standing; date debated — Géza Alföldy's reading of the dedication plaque suggests ~98 CE (Domitian), while a 2016 coin find points to 112–116 CE (Trajan/Hadrian) @t[~98 CE..116 CE] [^4]
- Aqua Alexandrina (226 CE): Last of Rome's 11 aqueducts @t[=226 CE] [^3]

---
[^1]: Frontinus, *De Aquaeductu Urbis Romae* (~97 CE)
[^2]: Hodge, A.T. *Roman Aqueducts and Water Supply* (2002)
[^3]: Wikipedia, "Roman aqueduct" — https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_aqueduct
[^4]: El País, "Age of Segovia aqueduct revised after discovery of ancient coin" (2016) — https://english.elpais.com/elpais/2016/11/01/inenglish/1477997248_304960.html
---

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id: eb53be
repo_id: main
file_path: technologies/roman-concrete.md
file_hash: 2bf013cb1eac53be28302888e36301edf8b47825ae6421ab83ebace9dace50f2
title: Roman Concrete
doc_type: technologie
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T22:56:12.419274855+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T22:58:11.972445789+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:eb53be -->
# Roman Concrete

## Overview
Roman concrete (*opus caementicium*) was a revolutionary building material that enabled the construction of domes, vaults, harbors, and aqueducts. @t[~300 BCE..476 CE] Its durability surpasses modern Portland cement in some marine applications.

## Key Facts
- Period of use: ~3rd century BCE – 5th century CE @t[~300 BCE..476 CE]
- Composition: Volcanic ash (pozzolana), lime, seawater, and rock aggregate
- Key innovation: Pozzolanic reaction with volcanic ash
- Volcanic ash source: Primarily from Pozzuoli (Bay of Naples) and the Campi Flegrei volcanic region

## Properties
- Set underwater (hydraulic cement) — critical for harbor construction @t[~300 BCE..476 CE]
- Increased in strength over time through mineral crystallization [^1]
- Could be molded into complex shapes (domes, vaults)
- Less tensile strength than modern concrete but superior durability

## Manufacturing Process
Roman builders used a "hot mixing" technique: quicklime was combined with dry volcanic ash before water was added. The exothermic reaction produced intense heat, trapping reactive lime as millimeter-scale white fragments (lime clasts) within the mortar matrix. [^3]

When cracks later formed in the concrete, these lime clasts dissolved and re-cemented the fractures — giving Roman concrete self-healing properties. This mechanism was confirmed by analysis of samples from Privernum, Italy, and corroborated by a 2025 excavation at Pompeii. [^3]

## Marine Concrete
In harbor structures, seawater seeping through the concrete dissolved volcanic minerals and caused aluminous tobermorite (Al-tobermorite) and phillipsite crystals to grow within the matrix. These interlocking crystals reinforced the concrete over centuries, explaining its exceptional durability in marine environments. [^4]

## Notable Structures
- Pantheon dome (~125 CE) @t[~125 CE]: 43.3 m span, largest unreinforced concrete dome ever built
- Colosseum (~80 CE) @t[=80 CE]: Concrete core with travertine facing
- Harbor of Sebastos, Caesarea Maritima (~22–10 BCE) @t[~22 BCE..~10 BCE]: Built by Herod the Great; pozzolana imported from the Bay of Naples [^5]
- Harbor at Puteoli
- Baths of Caracalla (~212–217 CE) @t[~212 CE..~217 CE] [^2]
- Baths of Diocletian (~298–306 CE) @t[~298 CE..~306 CE] [^2]

---
[^1]: Jackson, M. et al. "Mechanical resilience and cementitious processes in Imperial Roman architectural mortar" *PNAS* 111 (2014)
[^2]: Lancaster, L. *Concrete Vaulted Construction in Imperial Rome* (Cambridge, 2005)
[^3]: Masic, A. et al. "Hot mixing: Mechanistic insights into the durability of ancient Roman concrete" *Science Advances* 9 (2023) doi:10.1126/sciadv.add1602
[^4]: Jackson, M. et al. "Phillipsite and Al-tobermorite mineral cements produced through low-temperature water-rock reactions in Roman marine concrete" *American Mineralogist* 102 (2017)
[^5]: Brandon, C. et al. *Building for Eternity: The History and Technology of Roman Concrete Engineering in the Sea* (Oxbow Books, 2014)
---

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id: 11bfdd
repo_id: main
file_path: technologies/roman-roads.md
file_hash: c5d733d42cb919f581da564a3303a80ded988b2a6c5110a29e9484640fdeeaea
title: Roman Roads
doc_type: technologie
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.660909758+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:56.607378865+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:11bfdd -->
# Roman Roads

## Overview
The Roman road network was one of the greatest engineering achievements of the ancient world, spanning ~400,000 km at its peak and enabling rapid military movement, trade, and communication across the empire. At its height, 29 military highways radiated from Rome, connecting 113 provinces via 372 roads. [^3]

## Key Facts
- Total network: ~400,000 km (80,000 km paved) [^1] [^2]
- First major road: Via Appia (312 BCE), Rome to Capua @t[=312 BCE]
- Construction: Layered system of gravel, sand, and paving stones [^1]
- Maintained by: State and local authorities

## Engineering
- Surveyed in straight lines where possible (*agrimensor* surveyors)
- Layered construction: Foundation (*statumen*), gravel (*rudus*), concrete (*nucleus*), paving (*summa crusta*) [^1]
- Drainage ditches on both sides
- Milestones (*miliaria*) every Roman mile (~1.48 km)

## Major Roads
- Via Appia (312 BCE): "Queen of Roads," initially Rome to Capua @t[=312 BCE]; later extended to Brindisi (Brundisium) by the late 3rd century BCE [^2] [^4]
- Via Egnatia (146–120 BCE): Built by proconsul Gnaeus Egnatius to consolidate the province of Macedonia; connected the Adriatic coast (Dyrrachium) to Byzantium, ~1,120 km @t[~146 BCE..~120 BCE] [^3]
- Via Augusta (8–2 BCE): Renovated by Augustus from the earlier Via Herculea; ran from Gades (Cádiz) to the Pyrenees, ~1,500 km @t[~8 BCE..~2 BCE] [^5]
- Stane Street, Watling Street: Roman Britain, constructed after the invasion of 43 CE @t[~43 CE..410 CE] [^2]

## Legacy
- The *Milliarium Aureum* (Golden Milestone), erected by Augustus in 20 BCE @t[=20 BCE], stood in the Forum as the symbolic origin point of the entire road network [^6]
- "All roads lead to Rome" — distances across the empire were measured from this monument
- Many modern European roads follow Roman alignments

---
[^1]: Laurence, R. *The Roads of Roman Italy* (Routledge, 1999)
[^2]: Chevallier, R. *Roman Roads* (University of California Press, 1976)
[^3]: Wikipedia, "Roman roads," https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_roads
[^4]: LacusCurtius, "Via Appia," *Encyclopaedia Britannica* (1911 ed.), https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Periods/Roman/Topics/Engineering/roads/Appia/Britannica_1911*.html
[^5]: Wikipedia, "Via Augusta," https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Via_Augusta
[^6]: LacusCurtius, "Milliarium Aureum," Platner & Ashby (1929), https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Italy/Lazio/Roma/Rome/_Texts/PLATOP*/Milliarium_Aureum.html
---

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id: 445d5a
repo_id: main
file_path: trade-routes/amber-road.md
file_hash: 361d4d45b4fd359ce6406d8000f53e7a41037365d3667e979c06812ccf7d129c
title: Amber Road
doc_type: trade-route
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.650909720+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:56.610056797+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:445d5a -->
# Amber Road

## Overview
The Amber Road was an ancient trade route connecting the Baltic Sea coast to the Mediterranean, primarily transporting amber from northern Europe to the civilizations of Greece, Rome, and Egypt. Prehistoric trade routes between Northern and Southern Europe were largely defined by the amber trade, with amber sometimes called "the gold of the north." @t[~3000 BCE..~400 CE]

## Key Facts
- Period: ~3000 BCE – Roman era @t[~3000 BCE..~400 CE]
- Key good: Baltic amber (fossilized tree resin)
- Northern terminus: Baltic coast (modern Poland, Lithuania)
- Southern terminus: Adriatic (Aquileia), Greece, Egypt
- Return goods: Romans exported glass, brass, gold, tin, and copper northward in exchange [^3]

## Route
- From the Baltic coast through the Vistula, Dnieper, and Danube river corridors [^3]
- Key waypoints: Biskupin, Wrocław, Carnuntum, Aquileia [^1]
- In Roman times, the main route ran south from the Baltic coast (modern Lithuania) through Poland, through the land of the Boii (modern Czech Republic/Slovakia), to Aquileia at the Adriatic [^3]
- Connected to Mediterranean trade networks at the Adriatic, and onward to the Silk Road via the Black Sea [^1] [^3]
- Roman military fortifications were built along the route to protect merchants from Germanic raids [^3]

## Significance
- Baltic amber found in Mycenaean shaft graves @t[~1600 BCE] and in Tutankhamun's breast ornament @t[~1330 BCE]; spectroscopic analysis confirmed Baltic origin [^3]
- Amber from the Amber Road reached the Royal Hypogeum of Qatna (Syria) in unparalleled quantities for the ancient Near East @t[~1500 BCE..~1200 BCE] [^3]
- Amber was sent as an offering to the Temple of Apollo at Delphi [^3]
- Romans valued amber highly; Nero sent an expedition to the Baltic to procure it @t[~61] [^2]
- The Amber Road likely stimulated the Nordic Bronze Age, bringing Mediterranean influences northward [^3]
- World's largest archaeological amber find (~1,240–1,760 kg) discovered at Partynice near Wrocław, dating to the 1st century BCE @t[~100 BCE] [^3]
- Facilitated cultural exchange between northern and southern Europe [^2]

## Origins: Sicilian Amber
Before Baltic amber dominated, Sicilian amber was the primary source for Greece, North Africa, and Spain. Baltic amber gradually displaced Sicilian amber on the Iberian Peninsula from around 1000 BCE @t[~1000 BCE]. [^3]

---
[^1]: Bouzek, J. "The Amber Route" in *Greece, Anatolia and Europe* (1997)
[^2]: Causey, F. *Amber and the Ancient World* (Getty Museum, 2011)
[^3]: Wikipedia contributors, "Amber Road," *Wikipedia* (accessed 2026-02-23), citing de Navarro (1925), Reeves (1990), Mukherjee et al. (2008), Jovaiša (2001), Schachinger (2020)
---

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id: aca285
repo_id: main
file_path: trade-routes/incense-route.md
file_hash: b8bbc7d24ae1f25808041c1c868eb9488b3325741374cfd4ec14f7d7eb5652ba
title: Incense Route
doc_type: trade-route
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.650909720+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:56.612336773+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:aca285 -->
# Incense Route

## Overview
The Incense Route was a network of trade paths connecting the Arabian Peninsula to the Mediterranean, primarily transporting frankincense and myrrh from southern Arabia (modern Yemen and Oman) to markets in Egypt, Mesopotamia, Greece, and Rome. It also carried goods from India and East Africa, making it one of the ancient world's most economically significant trade networks.

## Key Facts
- Period: ~7th century BCE – ~3rd century CE @t[~700 BCE..~300 CE]
- Peak activity: ~3rd century BCE – ~2nd century CE @t[~300 BCE..~200 CE]
- Length: ~2,400 km (main overland route)
- Key goods: Frankincense, myrrh, spices, textiles, Indian luxury goods
- Key peoples: Nabataeans, Sabaeans, Minaeans [^1]

## Route
- Southern terminus: Dhofar (Oman) and Hadhramaut (Yemen)
- Northern terminus: Gaza, Petra, Damascus
- Key waypoints: Shabwa, Ma'rib, Petra, Gaza [^1]
- Negev segment: Four Nabataean towns — Haluza, Mamshit, Avdat, and Shivta — served as key stations on the final leg from Petra to Gaza @t[~300 BCE..~200 CE] [^3]

## Key Players
- Nabataeans: Controlled the northern segment from Petra; grew wealthy as middlemen @t[~300 BCE..106 CE] [^1] [^2]
- Kingdom of Saba (Sheba): Controlled production in southern Arabia [^1]
- Minaeans: Earlier controllers of the southern Arabian trade, predating Nabataean dominance @t[~700 BCE..~100 BCE] [^1]
- Romans: Attempted to conquer Arabia Felix under Aelius Gallus (26–24 BCE) but failed @t[26 BCE..24 BCE] [^2] [^4]

## Roman Period
Rome annexed the Nabataean Kingdom under Emperor Trajan in 106 CE @t[=106 CE], creating the province of Arabia Petraea with Petra as its capital. Paradoxically, trade along the route reached its apex in the period immediately following annexation, before a marked decline set in during the 3rd century CE @t[~200 CE..~300 CE]. [^2] [^3]

## Decline
The overland route declined for two main reasons:
1. Romans discovered how to exploit monsoon wind patterns (attributed to the navigator Hippalus, ~1st century BCE) enabling direct sea trade with India via the Red Sea, bypassing overland routes @t[~100 BCE..~100 CE] [^5]
2. The Roman annexation of Nabataea in 106 CE @t[=106 CE] disrupted the Nabataean middleman system, and the route saw sharp decline through the 3rd century CE [^3]

## Primary Sources
- Strabo, *Geographica* (1st century BCE/CE): Detailed account of the Aelius Gallus expedition and Arabian trade [^4]
- *Periplus of the Erythraean Sea* (1st century CE): Eyewitness account of Red Sea and Indian Ocean trade routes, documenting the shift to maritime trade [^5]

## UNESCO Recognition
The Negev segment of the route — comprising the Nabataean towns of Haluza, Mamshit, Avdat, and Shivta along with associated fortresses and agricultural landscapes — was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2005 @t[=2005 CE]. [^3]

---
[^1]: Avanzini, A. *Along the Aroma Routes* (2008)
[^2]: Hoyland, R. *Arabia and the Arabs* (Routledge, 2001)
[^3]: UNESCO World Heritage Centre, "Incense Route – Desert Cities in the Negev," inscribed 2005. https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1107
[^4]: Strabo, *Geographica* XVI.4.22–24 (primary source for Aelius Gallus expedition and Arabian trade)
[^5]: *Periplus of the Erythraean Sea*, anonymous Greek-Egyptian author, 1st century CE (documents monsoon navigation and Red Sea trade)
---

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id: c22a18
repo_id: main
file_path: trade-routes/silk-road.md
file_hash: 236571eac5372f767fd74c83806c88adad18be7ef4a9387500e8a69e5bb2f74a
title: Silk Road
doc_type: trade-route
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.650909720+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:56.614661911+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:c22a18 -->
# Silk Road

## Overview
The Silk Road was a network of overland trade routes connecting China to the Mediterranean world, facilitating the exchange of goods, ideas, religions, and technologies for over 1,500 years. It was not a single road but a web of interconnected routes across Central Asia, with no single traveler traversing the full length. [^3]

## Key Facts
- Period: ~130 BCE – ~1450 CE (ancient period focus: ~130 BCE – ~400 CE) @t[~130 BCE..~1450 CE]
- Length: ~6,400 km (main overland route)
- Named by: Ferdinand von Richthofen (1877) @t[=1877 CE]
- Key goods: Silk, spices, gold, glass, horses, precious stones

## Route
- Eastern terminus: Chang'an (Xi'an), China
- Western terminus: Rome, Antioch, Constantinople
- Key waypoints: Dunhuang, Kashgar, Samarkand, Merv, Ctesiphon, Palmyra
- Crossed the Taklamakan Desert, Pamir Mountains, and Iranian Plateau [^1]

## Key Empires and Intermediaries
- The **Han dynasty** (China) and **Roman Empire** were the primary producers and consumers of silk, but direct contact between them was rare [^3]
- The **Parthian Empire** (~247 BCE – 224 CE) controlled the middle section of the route and acted as the principal intermediary between Rome and China, profiting from transit trade @t[~247 BCE..224 CE] [^4]
- The **Kushan Empire** (1st–3rd century CE) facilitated trade across Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent, connecting the overland and maritime routes @t[~30 CE..375 CE] [^3]
- **Sogdian merchants** from Samarkand dominated commercial activity along the route from roughly the 4th to 8th century CE, operating trading colonies as far east as China @t[~300 CE..~750 CE] [^5]

## Cultural Exchange
- Buddhism spread from India to China via the Silk Road, carried by monks and merchants from roughly the 1st century CE onward @t[~1 CE..~400 CE] [^1]
- Nestorian Christianity, Manichaeism, and Islam traveled eastward in later centuries
- Technologies transferred: Papermaking (China → West), glassmaking (West → East), and later gunpowder
- Diseases also spread along the routes, possibly including the Antonine Plague (165–180 CE) and Plague of Cyprian (249–262 CE) [^2]

## Maritime Silk Road
A complementary sea route — the Maritime Silk Road — connected China's southern ports to Southeast Asia, India, the Arabian Peninsula, and East Africa, beginning by the 2nd century BCE. [^6] During the Han dynasty, maritime trade relations with Southeast Asia and India were established alongside the overland routes.

## Key Periods
- **Han dynasty** (206 BCE – 220 CE): Zhang Qian's first mission to the Western Regions in 138 BCE (dispatched by Emperor Wu) opened diplomatic contact; his second mission followed in 119 BCE. These missions catalyzed the formal opening of the route ~130–114 BCE. @t[206 BCE..220 CE] [^1]
- **Kushan Empire** (1st–3rd century CE): Facilitated trade across Central Asia @t[~30 CE..375 CE]
- **Pax Romana / Pax Sinica** (~50 BCE – 250 CE): The four empires of Rome, Parthia, Kushan, and Han simultaneously stable, enabling peak ancient Silk Road trade @t[~50 BCE..~250 CE] [^4]
- Roman demand for Chinese silk was so great that Roman writers complained of gold draining eastward [^2]

---
[^1]: Hansen, V. *The Silk Road: A New History* (Oxford, 2012)
[^2]: Frankopan, P. *The Silk Roads: A New History of the World* (2015)
[^3]: Wikipedia contributors. "Silk Road." *Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia*. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silk_Road (accessed 2026)
[^4]: "The 4 Powerful Empires of the Silk Road." *The Collector* (2022). https://www.thecollector.com/four-empires-silk-road/
[^5]: "Sogdian Traders Along the Silk Road." *ResearchGate* (2023). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/371261395
[^6]: Wikipedia contributors. "Maritime Silk Road." *Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia*. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maritime_Silk_Road (accessed 2026)
---

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id: d23a9f
repo_id: main
file_path: treaties/peace-of-nicias.md
file_hash: b286d76691e159e11dc711fb3b9796fbb117a4b8fc683c63da00a6752f4fb776
title: Peace of Nicias
doc_type: treatie
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.657909746+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:56.617283348+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:d23a9f -->
# Peace of Nicias

## Overview
The Peace of Nicias (421 BCE) was a treaty intended to end the first phase of the Peloponnesian War (the Archidamian War) between Athens and Sparta. Signed in March 421 BCE, it was supposed to last 50 years but effectively collapsed within a few years. @t[=421 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Date: March 421 BCE @t[=421 BCE]
- Parties: Athens and Sparta (and their respective allies)
- Negotiators: Nicias (Athens) and King Pleistoanax (Sparta) [^3]
- Context: Ended the Archidamian War (431–421 BCE), first phase of the Peloponnesian War @t[431 BCE..421 BCE]
- Duration: Nominally 50 years; effectively ~6 years

## Terms
The treaty's specific provisions, recorded by Thucydides (5.18–19), included: [^1]
- Sparta to return Amphipolis to Athens
- Athens to release the 292 prisoners captured at Pylos and Sphacteria (425 BCE), including at least 120 Spartiates @t[=425 BCE]
- Mutual non-aggression for 50 years
- Disputes to be settled by arbitration
- Temples and sanctuaries throughout Greece to be open to worshippers from all cities
- The oracle at Delphi to regain its autonomy

## Failure
- Key Spartan allies (Corinth, Boeotia) refused to sign
- Neither side fully implemented the terms; Sparta failed to deliver Amphipolis, which remained under local control
- Alcibiades undermined the peace by forming the Quadruple Alliance with Argos, Elis, and Mantinea (420 BCE) @t[=420 BCE] [^2]
- The Battle of Mantinea (418 BCE) further destabilized the settlement @t[=418 BCE] [^1]
- The Sicilian Expedition (415–413 BCE) effectively ended any pretense of peace @t[415 BCE..413 BCE] [^2]

---
[^1]: Thucydides, *History of the Peloponnesian War* 5.18–19
[^2]: Kagan, D. *The Peace of Nicias and the Sicilian Expedition* (Cornell, 1981)
[^3]: Thucydides, *History of the Peloponnesian War* 5.17; Plutarch, *Life of Nicias* 9
---

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id: 7207df
repo_id: main
file_path: treaties/treaty-of-apamea.md
file_hash: 424310e2cb5dc569e59e8112412167b070d1c076b48c4aeb54c7dd59addf126a
title: Treaty of Apamea
doc_type: treatie
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.657909746+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:56.619824579+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:7207df -->
# Treaty of Apamea

## Overview
The Treaty of Apamea (188 BCE) was imposed by Rome on the Seleucid Empire after the Roman-Seleucid War, effectively ending Seleucid power in Anatolia and establishing Roman dominance in the eastern Mediterranean. @t[=188 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Date: 188 BCE @t[=188 BCE]
- Parties: Roman Republic and Seleucid Empire (Antiochus III)
- Context: Followed the Battle of Magnesia (190 BCE) @t[=190 BCE]

## Terms
- Seleucids withdrew from all territory west of the Taurus Mountains
- War indemnity of 15,000 Euboic talents of silver: 500 paid immediately, 2,500 on Senate ratification, then 1,000 talents annually for 12 years [^1]
- Seleucid navy reduced to 10 warships; all war elephants surrendered
- Territory redistributed to Rome's allies: Pergamon received Lydia, Phrygia, Mysia, Pisidia, and Pamphylia; Rhodes received Caria and Lycia [^1]
- Antiochus III's son (the future Antiochus IV Epiphanes) taken to Rome as a political hostage [^3]
- Seleucids prohibited from expanding west of the Taurus Mountains in perpetuity

## Significance
- Marked the end of Seleucid influence in Anatolia
- Established Rome as the dominant power in the eastern Mediterranean
- Established *philia* (amity) between Rome and the Seleucid dynasty, governing relations for the following half-century [^4]
- Weakened the Seleucid Empire, contributing to its eventual fragmentation [^2]

---
[^1]: Polybius, *Histories* 21.43
[^2]: Gruen, E. *The Hellenistic World and the Coming of Rome* (1984)
[^3]: Wikipedia, "Antiochus IV Epiphanes" — hostage clause of the Treaty of Apamea
[^4]: Ma, J. "The Treaty of Apamea and the Later Seleucids," *Antichthon* (2015), Cambridge University Press
---

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id: 07edd5
repo_id: main
file_path: treaties/treaty-of-kadesh.md
file_hash: 504aac36babc98bcbb9a0f67ee715544a25a18e599b4997d8b52878ddb6eb99a
title: Treaty of Kadesh
doc_type: treatie
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.657909746+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:56.623629208+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:07edd5 -->
# Treaty of Kadesh

## Overview
The Treaty of Kadesh (~1259 BCE) between Egypt and the Hittite Empire is the earliest known surviving international peace treaty. Also known as the Eternal Treaty or Silver Treaty, it ended decades of conflict between the two great Bronze Age powers. The name "Treaty of Kadesh" is informal — the treaty text itself does not mention the Battle of Kadesh. @t[~1259 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Date: ~1259 BCE (some scholars cite 1258 BCE) @t[~1259 BCE]
- Parties: Egypt (Ramesses II) and Hittite Empire (Hattusili III)
- Context: Followed the Battle of Kadesh (~1274 BCE), approximately 15 years later @t[~1274 BCE]
- Languages: Egyptian hieroglyphic and Akkadian cuneiform
- Original medium: Silver tablets (now lost); surviving versions are copies

## Terms
- Mutual non-aggression pact
- Defensive alliance against third-party attacks
- Extradition of political refugees (with humane treatment clause)
- Mutual recognition of borders in Syria [^1]
- Divine witnesses invoked; violations threatened with divine punishment [^3]

## Physical Record
- Egyptian version: Inscribed on temple walls at Karnak and the Ramesseum (Thebes)
- Hittite version: Cuneiform clay tablets discovered at Hattusa in 1906 by German archaeologist Hugo Winckler; two tablets now held at the Ancient Orient Museum, Istanbul [^3]
- Both versions are translations of the original silver tablets exchanged between the parties

## Significance
- Earliest known surviving peace treaty for which both parties' versions survive; an earlier diplomatic treaty between Ebla and Abarsal (~2350 BCE) predates it but is not classified as a peace treaty [^4]
- A copy hangs in the United Nations headquarters in New York as a symbol of diplomacy
- Both Egyptian and Hittite versions survive (discovered at Karnak and Hattusa) [^2]
- Later sealed by a diplomatic marriage: Maathorneferure, daughter of Hattusili III, married Ramesses II in his Year 34 (~1246 BCE) @t[~1246 BCE] [^4]
- Ushered in a prolonged period of peace and cooperation, allowing Ramesses II to focus on monumental building projects [^3]

---
[^1]: Beckman, G. *Hittite Diplomatic Texts* (1999)
[^2]: Bryce, T. *Letters of the Great Kings of the Ancient Near East* (2003)
[^3]: Wikipedia, "Egyptian–Hittite peace treaty", https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian%E2%80%93Hittite_peace_treaty
[^4]: World History Encyclopedia, "The Battle of Kadesh & the First Peace Treaty", https://www.worldhistory.org/article/78/the-battle-of-kadesh--the-first-peace-treaty/
---

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id: f36cdb
repo_id: main
file_path: writing-systems/cuneiform.md
file_hash: a2b03bfe7b495da6b2bd02bffaaa7a94531e7fba277cd1f15b636da2f76d8074
title: Cuneiform
doc_type: writing-system
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.658909750+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:56.626329768+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:f36cdb -->
# Cuneiform

## Overview
Cuneiform is the earliest known writing system, developed in Sumer ~3400 BCE. Written by pressing a reed stylus into wet clay tablets, it was used for over 3,000 years across multiple languages and civilizations. @t[~3400 BCE..=75 CE]

## Key Facts
- Origin: Sumer, southern Mesopotamia, ~3400 BCE @t[~3400 BCE]
- Medium: Clay tablets impressed with a wedge-shaped reed stylus
- Name: From Latin *cuneus* ("wedge")
- Languages written: Sumerian, Akkadian, Eblaite, Elamite, Hittite, Hurrian, Luwian, Urartian, Old Persian [^1][^3]
- Influenced: Ugaritic and Old Persian alphabets derived from the cuneiform tradition [^3]
- Deciphered by: Georg Friedrich Grotefend (1802), Henry Rawlinson, Edward Hincks, and others (~1835–1857) via the Behistun Inscription @t[~1802 CE..~1857 CE] [^1]

## Development
- Proto-cuneiform: pictographic/logographic system for accounting (~3400–3000 BCE), attested by ~5,000 tablets from Uruk @t[~3400 BCE..~3000 BCE] [^3]
- Evolved into syllabic writing by ~2600 BCE @t[~2600 BCE]
- Akkadian texts attested from the 24th century BCE onward; Akkadian became the dominant cuneiform language @t[~2400 BCE..] [^3]
- ~600–1,000 signs in use at various periods
- Last known cuneiform tablet: 75 CE (astronomical text from Babylon) @t[=75 CE] [^2]

## Significance
- Enabled record-keeping, literature, law, science, and diplomacy @t[~3400 BCE..=75 CE]
- Preserved the *Epic of Gilgamesh*, Code of Hammurabi, and thousands of administrative records
- ~500,000 cuneiform tablets have been excavated; many remain untranslated [^3]

---
[^1]: Walker, C.B.F. *Cuneiform* (British Museum, 1987)
[^2]: Robson, E. *Mathematics in Ancient Iraq* (Princeton, 2008)
[^3]: Mark, J.J. "Cuneiform." *World History Encyclopedia*, 2011. https://www.worldhistory.org/cuneiform/
---

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- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 13: "Deciphered by: Georg Friedrich Grotefend (1802), Henry Rawlinson, Edward Hinc..." - Walker source from 1987 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
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- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 16: "Proto-cuneiform: pictographic/logographic system for accounting (~3400–3000..." - Mark source from 2011 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
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- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 20: "Last known cuneiform tablet: 75 CE (astronomical text from Babylon) @t[=75 CE..." - Robson source from 2008 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
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- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 25: "~500,000 cuneiform tablets have been excavated; many remain untranslated [^3]" - Mark source from 2011 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
  > 


id: 68261c
repo_id: main
file_path: writing-systems/egyptian-hieroglyphics.md
file_hash: aedabebda447ca21df6c6be671c446cb34763724bd9b9fa78501a7e2f8ca592d
title: Egyptian Hieroglyphics
doc_type: writing-system
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.658909750+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:56.628976158+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:68261c -->
# Egyptian Hieroglyphics

## Overview
Egyptian hieroglyphics were the formal writing system of ancient Egypt, used for ~3,500 years on monuments, temples, and tombs. Deciphered by Jean-François Champollion in 1822 using the Rosetta Stone.

## Key Facts
- Origin: ~3200 BCE (earliest examples from Abydos; bone/ivory tags dated 3400–3200 BCE) @t[~3200 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Period of use: ~3200 BCE – ~400 CE @t[~3200 BCE..~400 CE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Number of signs: ~700 in classical usage (expanded to ~5,000 in Ptolemaic period) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Deciphered by: Jean-François Champollion (1822) using the Rosetta Stone @t[=1822] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## System
- Three sign types: logograms (word-signs), phonograms (sound-signs), and determinatives (semantic classifiers) [^3] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Written left-to-right, right-to-left, or top-to-bottom (direction indicated by which way figures face) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Hieratic: Cursive form for everyday use (~2600 BCE onward) @t[~2600 BCE..] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Demotic: Later cursive form (~650 BCE onward) @t[~650 BCE..] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Coptic: Final stage of the Egyptian language, using Greek alphabet with Demotic-derived letters (~300 CE onward)

## Key Artifacts
- Rosetta Stone (196 BCE): Trilingual decree (hieroglyphic, Demotic, Greek) that enabled decipherment @t[=196 BCE] [^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Narmer Palette (~3100 BCE): Among the earliest hieroglyphic inscriptions @t[~3100 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Book of the Dead: Funerary texts with hieroglyphic illustrations, used from the New Kingdom (~1550 BCE) to ~50 BCE @t[~1550 BCE..~50 BCE] [^4] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

---
[^1]: Robinson, A. *Cracking the Egyptian Code* (Thames & Hudson, 2012)
[^2]: Parkinson, R. *The Rosetta Stone* (British Museum, 2005)
[^3]: World History Encyclopedia. "Egyptian Hieroglyphs." worldhistory.org (2025)
[^4]: Wikipedia. "Book of the Dead." en.wikipedia.org (accessed 2026)
---

## Review Queue

<!-- factbase:review -->
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Coptic: Final stage of the Egyptian language, using Greek alphabet with Demot..." - when was this true?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 9: Malformed temporal tag @t[~-3200..~400 CE] — see docs for valid syntax
  > 

- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 23: Malformed temporal tag @t[~-1550..~-50] — see docs for valid syntax
  > 

- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Coptic: Final stage of the Egyptian language, using Greek alphabet with Demot..." - what is the source?
  > 


id: a94620
repo_id: main
file_path: writing-systems/phoenician-alphabet.md
file_hash: db4a954485c59fe2252772e059c9fed9a9eb2a24ec818d2e4507e0daea40bb8f
title: Phoenician Alphabet
doc_type: writing-system
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.658909750+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:56.631616836+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:a94620 -->
# Phoenician Alphabet

## Overview
The Phoenician alphabet (~1050 BCE) was the first widely-used phonetic alphabet, consisting of 22 consonant letters. It is the ancestor of virtually all modern alphabets including Greek, Latin, Arabic, and Hebrew. @t[~1050 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Origin: Phoenicia (modern Lebanon), ~1050 BCE @t[~1050 BCE] [^1]
- Type: Abjad (consonantal alphabet, no vowels) [^2]
- Number of letters: 22 [^1]
- Direction: Right to left [^1]
- Derived from: Proto-Sinaitic/Proto-Canaanite script (~1800 BCE) @t[~1800 BCE] [^1]
- Used for: Iron Age Canaanite languages — Phoenician, Hebrew, Ammonite, Edomite, Old Aramaic [^3]

## Oldest Known Evidence
The Ahiram Sarcophagus (KAI 1), discovered in 1923 by French archaeologist Pierre Montet at Byblos (modern Jbeil, Lebanon), bears the earliest known example of the fully developed Phoenician alphabet. @t[~1050 BCE] The inscription is a funerary curse warning against disturbing the tomb; it is preserved in the National Museum of Beirut. [^4]

## Letter Names and Acrophonic Principle
The 22 letters were named acrophonically — each letter name began with the sound it represented, and the letter form derived from an Egyptian hieroglyph depicting that object. For example: *ʔalp* (𐤀, ox), *bayt* (𐤁, house), *gaml* (𐤂, throwing stick). This acrophonic origin links the Phoenician alphabet directly to Egyptian hieroglyphic tradition. [^5]

## Descendants
- Greek alphabet (~800 BCE): Added vowels, adapted letter forms @t[~800 BCE] [^1]
- Aramaic alphabet: Ancestor of Hebrew, Arabic, Syriac, and many Asian scripts [^2]
- Latin alphabet (via Greek and Etruscan): Used by most of the modern world [^2]
- Punic script: Variant used in Carthage and North Africa @t[~814 BCE..146 BCE] [^3]
- South Arabian script: Ancestor of Ethiopic (Ge'ez) [^2]

## Significance
- Simplified writing from hundreds of signs (cuneiform, hieroglyphics) to 22 letters [^2]
- Made literacy more accessible beyond scribal elites [^2]
- Spread across the Mediterranean through Phoenician trade networks; Tyro-Sidonian commercial dominance made Phoenician a maritime lingua franca during the Iron Age [^3]
- Encoded in Unicode block U+10900–U+1091F [^5]

---
[^1]: Sass, B. *The Genesis of the Alphabet* (1988)
[^2]: Daniels, P.T. & Bright, W. *The World's Writing Systems* (Oxford, 1996)
[^3]: Wikipedia contributors. "Phoenician language." *Wikipedia*. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenician_language
[^4]: History of Information. "The Oldest Known Evidence of the Phoenician Alphabet." http://www.historyofinformation.com/detail.php?id=1310
[^5]: Encyclopaedia Britannica. "Phoenician alphabet." https://www.britannica.com/topic/Phoenician-alphabet
---

## Review Queue

<!-- factbase:review -->
- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 9: "Type: Abjad (consonantal alphabet, no vowels) [^2]" - when was this true?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Number of letters: 22 [^1]" - when was this true?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Direction: Right to left [^1]" - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 13: "Used for: Iron Age Canaanite languages — Phoenician, Hebrew, Ammonite, Edom..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 23: "Aramaic alphabet: Ancestor of Hebrew, Arabic, Syriac, and many Asian scripts ..." - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 24: "Latin alphabet (via Greek and Etruscan): Used by most of the modern world [^2]" - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 26: "South Arabian script: Ancestor of Ethiopic (Ge'ez) [^2]" - when was this true?
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 29: "Simplified writing from hundreds of signs (cuneiform, hieroglyphics) to 22 le..." - when was this true?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 30: "Made literacy more accessible beyond scribal elites [^2]" - when was this true?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 31: "Spread across the Mediterranean through Phoenician trade networks; Tyro-Sidon..." - when was this true?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 32: "Encoded in Unicode block U+10900–U+1091F [^5]" - when was this true?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 8: "Origin: Phoenicia (modern Lebanon), ~1050 BCE @t[~1050 BCE] [^1]" - Sass source from 1988 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 9: "Type: Abjad (consonantal alphabet, no vowels) [^2]" - Daniels source from 1996 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 10: "Number of letters: 22 [^1]" - Sass source from 1988 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 11: "Direction: Right to left [^1]" - Sass source from 1988 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 12: "Derived from: Proto-Sinaitic/Proto-Canaanite script (~1800 BCE) @t[~1800 BCE]..." - Sass source from 1988 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 22: "Greek alphabet (~800 BCE): Added vowels, adapted letter forms @t[~800 BCE] [^1]" - Sass source from 1988 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 23: "Aramaic alphabet: Ancestor of Hebrew, Arabic, Syriac, and many Asian scripts ..." - Daniels source from 1996 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 24: "Latin alphabet (via Greek and Etruscan): Used by most of the modern world [^2]" - Daniels source from 1996 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 26: "South Arabian script: Ancestor of Ethiopic (Ge'ez) [^2]" - Daniels source from 1996 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 29: "Simplified writing from hundreds of signs (cuneiform, hieroglyphics) to 22 le..." - Daniels source from 1996 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
  > 

- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 30: "Made literacy more accessible beyond scribal elites [^2]" - Daniels source from 1996 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
  > 


id: 79b191
repo_id: main
file_path: test-bce-tags.md
file_hash: 5b39ecdc09dbfbe41007f48bacca050d384c15a107dfd61d5dfe352d6fb36937
title: BCE Tag Format Test
doc_type: document
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T22:57:44.316639942+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T22:58:16.701657650+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:test01 -->
# BCE Tag Format Test

- Format A: negative with padding @t[=-0031]
- Format B: negative no padding @t[=-31]
- Format C: negative with equals 4-digit @t[=-0031]
- Format D: just negative year @t[-0031]
- Format E: negative range @t[-0031..-0027]
- Format F: negative event no pad @t[=-31]
- Format G: proleptic year 0 for 1 BCE @t[=0000]
- Format H: negative with month @t[=-0031-09]
- Format I: plain 0031 @t[=0031]


