# documents

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file_path: README.md
file_hash: 5a3950f74c4801a46382251ff7eae5ddc190bb796d37e10c38db03f68c496513
title: Ancient History Knowledge Base
doc_type: document
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T20:42:48.543236840+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T20:43:05.432581700+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:78a490 -->
# Ancient History Knowledge Base

## Overview

A structured knowledge base covering ancient history from the earliest civilizations through the fall of the Western Roman Empire @t[..=0476]. The knowledge base spans roughly 3,000 years of human history across Eurasia, North Africa, and the Mediterranean world.

## Scope

This knowledge base documents:

- **Civilizations** — empires, kingdoms, and city-states (Sumer, Akkad, Egypt, Assyria, Persia, Greece, Rome, Carthage, Maurya, Han China, and more)
- **Rulers** — kings, pharaohs, emperors, and generals (Alexander the Great, Hammurabi, Ramesses II, Augustus, Cyrus the Great, and others)
- **Battles** — major military engagements and their strategic significance (Marathon, Thermopylae, Gaugamela, Cannae, Actium, Adrianople)
- **Cities** — major urban centers and archaeological sites (Rome, Athens, Babylon, Alexandria, Ur, Pompeii, Troy)
- **Treaties** — diplomatic agreements and peace settlements (Treaty of Kadesh, Peace of Nicias, Treaty of Apamea)
- **Religions** — belief systems and their development (Greek religion, Egyptian religion, Zoroastrianism, Mesopotamian religion, early Christianity, Roman religion)
- **Technologies** — engineering and material innovations (bronze-working, iron smelting, Roman concrete, aqueducts, roads)
- **Trade routes** — commercial networks and their cultural impact (Silk Road, Incense Route, Amber Road)
- **Legal codes** — foundational law texts (Code of Hammurabi, Code of Ur-Nammu, Twelve Tables)
- **Writing systems** — scripts and literacy (cuneiform, Phoenician alphabet, Egyptian hieroglyphics)
- **Cultural movements** — intellectual and artistic traditions (Greek philosophy, Hellenism)
- **Definitions** — glossary of terms, acronyms, and conventions used throughout

## Conventions

- Dates use BCE/CE notation throughout (not BC/AD)
- Temporal tags use factbase syntax: `@t[=331 BCE]` for exact events, `@t[~2560 BCE]` for approximate dates, `@t[305 BCE..30 BCE]` for ranges
- Approximate dates (common in ancient history) are marked with `~`
- Contested chronologies are noted inline with scholarly variants cited
- Every factual claim cites a source — primary ancient texts or modern archaeological scholarship
- Cross-references link rulers ↔ civilizations ↔ battles ↔ cities where relevant

## Folder Structure

| Folder | Document Type | Contents |
|---|---|---|
| `battles/` | battle | Military engagements |
| `cities/` | city | Urban centers and archaeological sites |
| `civilizations/` | civilization | Empires, kingdoms, and cultures |
| `cultural-movements/` | cultural-movement | Intellectual and artistic traditions |
| `definitions/` | definition | Glossary and term definitions |
| `legal-codes/` | legal-code | Law texts and governance documents |
| `religions/` | religion | Belief systems and religious history |
| `rulers/` | person | Individual rulers and leaders |
| `technologies/` | technology | Engineering and material innovations |
| `trade-routes/` | trade-route | Commercial and cultural exchange networks |
| `treaties/` | treaty | Diplomatic agreements |
| `writing-systems/` | writing-system | Scripts and literacy systems |

## Sources

Primary sources include Herodotus, Thucydides, Livy, Polybius, Plutarch, Strabo, and cuneiform tablets. Secondary sources draw on peer-reviewed archaeology, university publications, and established encyclopedias such as the Oxford Classical Dictionary and the Cambridge Ancient History series.


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repo_id: main
file_path: battles/battle-of-actium.md
file_hash: 9f8602a4abd783037731a7cfb2caa623d65f82f025bd734eede1c4253c98c074
title: Battle of Actium
doc_type: battle
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.653909731+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.713790454+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:450ee0 -->
# Battle of Actium

## Overview
The Battle of Actium (31 BCE) was the decisive naval engagement in which Octavian (later Augustus) defeated the combined forces of Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII, ending the Roman Republic's civil wars and paving the way for the Roman Empire. @t[=31 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Date: 2 September 31 BCE @t[=31 BCE]
- Location: Ionian Sea, near Actium (western Greece)
- Belligerents: Octavian vs. Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII
- Commanders: Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa (for Octavian), Antony and Cleopatra
- Result: Decisive victory for Octavian [^1]

## Background
The battle was the culmination of over a decade of rivalry between Octavian and Antony following the assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 BCE and the fracture of the Second Triumvirate (43–33 BCE). Octavian declared war on Cleopatra rather than Antony directly, using propaganda to portray her as a foreign threat to Rome. Antony and Cleopatra mobilized at Ephesus (33–32 BCE), then moved to Actium by August 32 BCE. Cleopatra contributed 20,000 talents to the war chest. [^3]

## The Battle
- Octavian's forces: ~400 ships (light Liburnian vessels) + 80,000 infantry, 12,000 cavalry; Antony's forces: ~480 ships (heavy quinqueremes) + ~60,000–63,000 infantry [^3]
- Agrippa seized Methone and Leucas in early 31 BCE, cutting off Antony's Egyptian supply lines before the main engagement
- Antony's forces were weakened by desertion and disease during a prolonged blockade
- Agrippa's Liburnians used the *harpax* — an iron-encased grappling harpoon fired by catapult — to immobilize Antony's larger, slower warships
- Cleopatra's squadron broke through and fled with the war chests; Antony followed with ~40 ships
- Remaining fleet surrendered the next morning; Antony's legions defected to Octavian

## Aftermath
- Antony stabbed himself on 1 August 30 BCE and died in Cleopatra's arms in Alexandria @t[=30 BCE]
- Cleopatra killed herself on 30 August 30 BCE rather than be paraded in Octavian's triumph @t[=30 BCE] [^1]
- Octavian ordered the execution of Caesarion (son of Julius Caesar and Cleopatra) [^3]
- Cleopatra's three children by Antony were taken to Rome and later raised by Octavia
- Egypt became a Roman province (30 BCE) @t[=30 BCE] [^3]
- Octavian became sole ruler; Senate granted him the title Augustus (27 BCE) @t[=27 BCE] [^2]

---
[^1]: Plutarch, *Life of Antony*
[^2]: Lange, C.H. *The Battle of Actium 31 BC* (Cambridge, 2022)
[^3]: Cassius Dio, *Roman History*, Books 50–51 (~229 CE)
---

## Review Queue

<!-- factbase:review -->
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Date: 2 September 31 BCE" - when was this true?
> BCE event. Attested by Plutarch, *Life of Antony* (~75 CE) [^1]; modern scholarly confirmation in Lange (2022) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Location: Ionian Sea, near Actium (western Greece)" - when was this true?
> BCE-era fact. Attested by Plutarch, *Life of Antony* (~75 CE) [^1]; confirmed in Lange (2022) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Belligerents: Octavian vs. Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII" - when was this true?
> BCE-era fact. Attested by Plutarch, *Life of Antony* (~75 CE) [^1].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 13: "Commanders: Agrippa (for Octavian), Antony and Cleopatra" - when was this true?
> BCE-era fact. Attested by Plutarch, *Life of Antony* (~75 CE) [^1]. Agrippa's role confirmed in Cassius Dio, *Roman History* 50 (~229 CE).
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 14: "Result: Decisive victory for Octavian [^1]" - when was this true?
> BCE-era fact. Attested by Plutarch, *Life of Antony* (~75 CE) [^1]; modern analysis in Lange (2022) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 17: "Octavian's fleet: ~400 ships; Antony's fleet: ~230 warships + 60 Egyptian ships" - when was this true?
> BCE-era fact. Fleet estimates from Plutarch, *Life of Antony* (~75 CE) [^1]; modern analysis in Lange (2022) [^2]. Ancient estimates vary by source.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Antony's forces were weakened by desertion and disease during a prolonged blo..." - when was this true?
> BCE event (31 BCE campaign). Attested by Plutarch, *Life of Antony* (~75 CE) [^1]; Cassius Dio, *Roman History* 50 (~229 CE).
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Cleopatra's squadron broke through and fled; Antony followed" - when was this true?
> BCE event (2 September 31 BCE). Attested by Plutarch, *Life of Antony* 66 (~75 CE) [^1].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 20: "Remaining fleet surrendered; Antony's legions defected to Octavian" - when was this true?
> BCE event (31 BCE). Attested by Plutarch, *Life of Antony* (~75 CE) [^1]; Cassius Dio, *Roman History* 51 (~229 CE).
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 23: "Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide in Alexandria (30 BCE)" - when was this true?
> BCE event (30 BCE). Attested by Plutarch, *Life of Antony* 76-86 (~75 CE) [^1].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 24: "Egypt became a Roman province" - when was this true?
> BCE event (30 BCE). Attested by Cassius Dio, *Roman History* 51.17 (~229 CE); confirmed in Lange (2022) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Octavian became sole ruler; Senate granted him the title Augustus (27 BCE) [^2]" - when was this true?
> BCE event (27 BCE). Attested by multiple ancient sources including Cassius Dio (~229 CE); modern confirmation in Lange (2022) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Date: 2 September 31 BCE" - what is the source?
> Source: Plutarch, Life of Antony; Cassius Dio, Roman History 50-51. The date is well-established in classical sources. Already cited via [^1] (Plutarch) and [^2] (Lange 2022).
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Location: Ionian Sea, near Actium (western Greece)" - what is the source?
> Source: Plutarch, Life of Antony; Cassius Dio, Roman History 50. Already covered by document footnotes [^1] and [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Belligerents: Octavian vs. Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII" - what is the source?
> Source: Plutarch, Life of Antony [^1]. Well-established historical fact.
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 13: "Commanders: Agrippa (for Octavian), Antony and Cleopatra" - what is the source?
> Source: Plutarch, Life of Antony [^1]; Cassius Dio, Roman History 50.
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 17: "Octavian's fleet: ~400 ships; Antony's fleet: ~230 warships + 60 Egyptian ships" - what is the source?
> Source: Plutarch, Life of Antony [^1]; fleet estimates vary by source. Lange (2022) [^2] provides modern analysis.
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Antony's forces were weakened by desertion and disease during a prolonged blo..." - what is the source?
> Source: Plutarch, Life of Antony [^1]; Cassius Dio, Roman History 50.
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 19: "Cleopatra's squadron broke through and fled; Antony followed" - what is the source?
> Source: Plutarch, Life of Antony 66 [^1]; Cassius Dio, Roman History 50.33.
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 20: "Remaining fleet surrendered; Antony's legions defected to Octavian" - what is the source?
> Source: Plutarch, Life of Antony [^1]; Cassius Dio, Roman History 51.
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 23: "Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide in Alexandria (30 BCE)" - what is the source?
> Source: Plutarch, Life of Antony 76-86 [^1]. Antony died by sword, Cleopatra by asp bite (traditional account). Well-established in classical sources.
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 24: "Egypt became a Roman province" - what is the source?
> Source: Cassius Dio, Roman History 51.17. Egypt became a Roman province in 30 BCE. Add [^1] reference.
- [x] `@q[ambiguous]` Line 12: "Belligerents: Octavian vs. Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII" - what does "VII" mean in this context?
> VII is the regnal number — Cleopatra VII Philopator was the seventh queen of that name in the Ptolemaic dynasty. She is the famous Cleopatra (69-30 BCE). The numeral distinguishes her from earlier Cleopatras. No change needed — standard historical convention.
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 25: "Octavian became sole ruler; Senate granted him the title Augustus (27 BCE) [^2]" - Lange source from 2022 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> The fact that Octavian became Augustus in 27 BCE is one of the most well-established dates in Roman history. Lange's 2022 source is a recent scholarly work and remains current. No update needed.


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repo_id: main
file_path: battles/battle-of-adrianople.md
file_hash: 0dae9d1e93731de6d6cf63e6bbf563eb73c6b89767bcb5cba9127b1d55900b93
title: Battle of Adrianople
doc_type: battle
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T22:54:43.020940234+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T22:58:11.795580478+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:fc7830 -->
# Battle of Adrianople

## Overview
The Battle of Adrianople (9 August 378 CE) was a catastrophic Roman defeat in which a Gothic coalition destroyed a Roman army and killed Emperor Valens. @t[=0378] It is often cited as a turning point signaling the decline of Roman military power, comparable in scale to the defeats at Cannae (216 BCE) and Carrhae (53 BCE). [^3]

## Key Facts
- Date: 9 August 378 CE @t[=0378]
- Location: Adrianople (modern Edirne, Turkey), Roman province of Thracia
- Belligerents: Eastern Roman Empire vs. Gothic coalition (Thervingi Visigoths, Greuthungi/Ostrogoths, Alans)
- Commanders: Emperor Valens (Rome, killed), Fritigern (Thervingi, d. c. 380 CE)
- Result: Decisive Gothic victory [^1]
- Roman losses: Approximately two-thirds of the army (~10,000–20,000 killed), including Valens [^1][^2]

## Background
The battle was the culmination of the Gothic War (376–382 CE). @t[0376..0382] In 376 CE, Hunnic expansion from the east drove over 200,000 Visigoths (Thervingi) to the Danube frontier, where they received Roman permission to settle in Thrace. @t[=0376] Roman commanders Lupicinus and Maximus exploited the refugees, demanding slaves and weapons in exchange for food. Facing starvation, the Goths revolted under Fritigern. Earlier engagements at Marcianople (376 CE) @t[=0376] and Ad Salices (Battle of the Willows, 377 CE) @t[=0377] failed to suppress Gothic raiding across the Balkans. [^3]

By 378 CE, Valens — who had been campaigning against Persia — returned to Constantinople under pressure from its citizens and marched against Fritigern. His co-emperor in the west, Gratian (son of Valentinian I), was advancing with reinforcements from Gaul but had not yet arrived. [^1]

## The Battle
- Valens attacked without waiting for Gratian's western reinforcements, reportedly driven by jealousy of his nephew's military successes [^1][^3]
- Fritigern sent peace envoys on the morning of battle — historians regard this as a stalling tactic to await the return of ~10,000 Greuthungi cavalry who were away foraging [^1][^3]
- Roman cavalry on the left flank was routed when the Greuthungi arrived and struck unexpectedly
- Roman infantry, already exhausted from an eight-mile march in August heat without food or water, was surrounded and annihilated [^1]
- Valens was mortally wounded; his body was never recovered [^1]

## Significance
- Demonstrated the vulnerability of Roman legions to heavy cavalry and the dangers of poor scouting and low morale [^2][^3]
- The Goths lacked siege equipment and could not take Adrianople itself; the Gothic War continued until 382 CE [^3]
- Led to the Treaty of 382 CE: Emperor Theodosius I settled the Goths within the empire as *foederati*, granting land in exchange for military service @t[=0382] [^2][^4]
- Alaric, a Visigoth and former Roman commander, sacked Rome in 410 CE — a downstream consequence of the foederati settlement @t[=0410] [^3]
- Often considered a harbinger of the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476 CE) [^2][^4]

---
[^1]: Ammianus Marcellinus, *Res Gestae* 31.12–13 (~390 CE)
[^2]: Burns, T.S. *Barbarians Within the Gates of Rome*. Indiana University Press, 1994.
[^3]: Wasson, Donald L. "Battle of Adrianople." *World History Encyclopedia*, 2014. https://www.worldhistory.org/Battle_of_Adrianople/
[^4]: Heather, Peter. *The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians*. Oxford University Press, 2006.


id: 05754a
repo_id: main
file_path: battles/battle-of-cannae.md
file_hash: 88147bc0807af7f322cc58569c10d652aa7cb22e025eedfc75fba1992cd42a3c
title: Battle of Cannae
doc_type: battle
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.653909731+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.716883906+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:05754a -->
# Battle of Cannae

## Overview
The Battle of Cannae (216 BCE) was Hannibal Barca's masterpiece — a devastating double envelopment of a much larger Roman army during the Second Punic War. It remains one of the most studied tactical victories in military history. @t[=216 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Date: 2 August 216 BCE @t[=216 BCE]
- Location: Cannae, Apulia (southeastern Italy), near the River Aufidus (modern Ofanto)
- Belligerents: Carthage vs. Roman Republic
- Commanders: Hannibal Barca (Carthage), Lucius Aemilius Paullus and Gaius Terentius Varro (Rome)
- Result: Decisive Carthaginian victory [^1]

## Prelude
In spring 216 BCE, Hannibal seized the large Roman supply depot at Cannae in the Apulian plain, placing himself between the Roman army and its crucial source of supply. Polybius noted this "caused great commotion in the Roman army." The consuls resolved to confront him and marched south, finding him on the left bank of the Aufidus. [^4]

The Senate had deployed an unprecedented eight legions — roughly 86,000 men — determined to end the war decisively. Command alternated daily between the two consuls by Roman law; the traditional account places Varro in command on the day of battle, though modern scholars debate this. [^4]

## The Battle
- Romans: ~86,000 (including ~6,400 cavalry); Carthaginians: ~40,000–50,000 (including ~10,000 cavalry) [^3][^4]
- Hannibal placed his weakest troops (Gauls and Iberians) in a convex center, with veteran African infantry and cavalry on the flanks
- Roman advance pushed the center back into a concave shape, drawing them in
- Carthaginian flanks and cavalry closed the trap in a complete double envelopment
- Hasdrubal commanded the Carthaginian heavy cavalry; Maharbal led the Numidian cavalry [^3]
- Roman losses: ~50,000–70,000 killed (Polybius: 70,000; Livy: ~48,200) — the worst single-day defeat in Roman history [^2][^4]; ~10,000–19,000 captured; survivors fled to Canusium
- Among the Roman dead: 80 senators or men of senatorial rank, 2 quaestors, 29 of 48 military tribunes, and the previous year's consul Gnaeus Servilius Geminus [^4]
- Carthaginian losses: ~5,700–8,000 (Polybius: 5,700; Livy: ~8,000), mostly the Gauls who formed the front lines [^1][^4]
- Consul Paullus was killed in the battle; Varro survived and returned to Rome [^1]

## Aftermath
After the battle, Maharbal reportedly urged Hannibal to march immediately on Rome, saying he could "dine on the Capitol in five days." Hannibal declined, prompting Maharbal's famous rebuke: "You know how to win a victory, Hannibal; you do not know how to use one." [^1]

Hannibal's brother Mago was sent to Carthage with news of the victory. Before the Carthaginian senate, he poured out a bushel of gold signet rings taken from slain Roman knights — a vivid demonstration of the scale of the Roman elite's destruction. [^4]

Rome refused to negotiate or ransom prisoners. Emergency levies were raised and slaves were armed. Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus (*cunctator*, "the Delayer") was restored to prominence and his strategy of attrition was finally embraced.

The political consequences were severe. Capua and Tarentum — two of Italy's largest cities — along with Arpi, Salapia, and other southern Italian city-states defected from Rome to Carthage. Philip V of Macedon pledged his support to Hannibal, triggering the First Macedonian War. [^4]

At Canusium, the young Publius Cornelius Scipio (later Scipio Africanus) rallied a group of wavering officers who were discussing abandoning Rome. Drawing his sword, he forced them to swear an oath never to desert their homeland — an early sign of the man who would eventually defeat Hannibal. [^4]

Hannibal's decision not to march on Rome was strategically considered: his army was depleted from the battle, Rome still commanded vast manpower reserves, and his strategic aim was to strip Rome of its Italian allies rather than besiege the city itself. [^2][^4]

## Legacy
- Hannibal's double envelopment became the gold standard of tactical warfare
- Despite the victory, Hannibal could not take Rome itself
- Rome eventually adopted Fabian attrition strategy and won the war
- Scipio Africanus later used Hannibal's own encirclement tactics to defeat him at the Battle of Zama (202 BCE), ending the Second Punic War @t[=202 BCE] [^1]
- Field Marshal Alfred von Schlieffen wrote a treatise titled *Cannae* and based his operational doctrine on the battle; the Schlieffen Plan for WWI was directly inspired by Hannibal's double envelopment [^5]
- General Norman Schwarzkopf cited Cannae as inspiration for coalition operations in the 1991 Gulf War [^5]
- Cannae is still studied in military academies worldwide as a model of operational art [^2]

## Archaeology
Archaeological investigations near Cannae have uncovered weapon fragments, sling bullets, coinage, and scattered human remains. Precise mass graves described in ancient sources remain debated, as centuries of agriculture have altered the flat landscape. Material evidence supports large-scale conflict but cannot confirm exact casualty figures. [^3]

---
[^1]: Polybius, *Histories* 3.107–117; Mark, J.J. "Battle of Cannae." *World History Encyclopedia*, 24 March 2020. https://www.worldhistory.org/Battle_of_Cannae/
[^2]: Goldsworthy, A. *Cannae: Hannibal's Greatest Victory* (2001)
[^3]: "Forces, Tactics and Archaeology." *Seven Swords*, 2026. https://sevenswords.uk/battle-of-cannae/
[^4]: Livy, *Ab Urbe Condita* 22.49–51; Polybius, *Histories* 3.117; "Battle of Cannae." *Wikipedia*, last edited 19 February 2026. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Cannae
[^5]: Goldsworthy, A. *Cannae: Hannibal's Greatest Victory* (2001); "Battle of Cannae." *Wikipedia*, last edited 19 February 2026. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Cannae


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repo_id: main
file_path: battles/battle-of-gaugamela.md
file_hash: ca298e1cdc99276484d9aeb0248ac3ea7328134baebacda126c45a7029913628
title: Battle of Gaugamela
doc_type: battle
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.652909728+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.719226407+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:2eca19 -->
# Battle of Gaugamela

# Battle of Gaugamela

## Overview
The Battle of Gaugamela (331 BCE) was the decisive battle in which Alexander the Great defeated the Persian King Darius III, effectively ending the Achaemenid Persian Empire. @t[=331 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Date: 1 October 331 BCE @t[=331 BCE]
- Location: Gaugamela (near modern Erbil, Iraq)
- Belligerents: Macedon vs. Persian Empire
- Commanders: Alexander the Great vs. Darius III
- Result: Decisive Macedonian victory [^1]

## The Battle
- Alexander: ~47,000 troops; Darius: ~50,000–100,000 (ancient sources claim up to 1 million)
- Darius prepared the battlefield with scythed chariots and leveled ground for cavalry
- Alexander used an oblique advance, drawing the Persian line apart
- Led a cavalry charge through a gap directly at Darius, who fled
- Persian army collapsed after Darius' flight

## Aftermath
- Alexander captured Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis
- Darius III was later murdered by his own satrap Bessus (330 BCE) @t[=330 BCE]
- Marked the end of the Achaemenid dynasty after ~220 years [^2]

---
[^1]: Arrian, *Anabasis of Alexander* 3.8–15
[^2]: Heckel, W. *The Conquests of Alexander the Great* (Cambridge, 2008)
---

## Review Queue

<!-- factbase:review -->
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Date: 1 October 331 BCE" - when was this true?
> BCE event. Attested by Arrian, *Anabasis of Alexander* 3.8 (~130 CE) [^1]; Plutarch, *Life of Alexander*. Modern confirmation: Heckel (2008) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Location: Gaugamela (near modern Erbil, Iraq)" - when was this true?
> BCE-era fact. Attested by Arrian, *Anabasis* 3.8 (~130 CE) [^1].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Belligerents: Macedon vs. Persian Empire" - when was this true?
> BCE-era fact. Attested by Arrian, *Anabasis* 3.8 (~130 CE) [^1].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 13: "Commanders: Alexander the Great vs. Darius III" - when was this true?
> BCE-era fact. Attested by Arrian, *Anabasis* 3.8 (~130 CE) [^1].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 14: "Result: Decisive Macedonian victory [^1]" - when was this true?
> BCE-era fact. Attested by Arrian, *Anabasis* 3.15 (~130 CE) [^1]; modern analysis in Heckel (2008) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 17: "Alexander: ~47,000 troops; Darius: ~50,000–100,000 (ancient sources claim u..." - when was this true?
> BCE-era fact. Troop estimates from Arrian, *Anabasis* 3.8 (~130 CE) [^1]; modern range analysis in Heckel (2008) [^2]. Ancient estimates vary widely.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Darius prepared the battlefield with scythed chariots and leveled ground for ..." - when was this true?
> BCE event (331 BCE). Attested by Arrian, *Anabasis* 3.11 (~130 CE) [^1].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Alexander used an oblique advance, drawing the Persian line apart" - when was this true?
> BCE event (1 October 331 BCE). Attested by Arrian, *Anabasis* 3.13-14 (~130 CE) [^1].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 20: "Led a cavalry charge through a gap directly at Darius, who fled" - when was this true?
> BCE event (1 October 331 BCE). Attested by Arrian, *Anabasis* 3.14 (~130 CE) [^1]; Plutarch, *Life of Alexander* 33 (~75 CE).
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 21: "Persian army collapsed after Darius' flight" - when was this true?
> BCE event (1 October 331 BCE). Attested by Arrian, *Anabasis* 3.15 (~130 CE) [^1].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 24: "Alexander captured Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis" - when was this true?
> BCE events (331-330 BCE). Attested by Arrian, *Anabasis* 3.16-18 (~130 CE) [^1].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Darius III was later murdered by his own satrap Bessus (330 BCE)" - when was this true?
> BCE event (330 BCE). Attested by Arrian, *Anabasis* 3.21 (~130 CE) [^1]; Curtius Rufus 5.12-13 (~1st century CE).
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 26: "Marked the end of the Achaemenid dynasty after ~220 years [^2]" - when was this true?
> BCE-era fact. Modern scholarly assessment in Heckel, *The Conquests of Alexander the Great* (Cambridge, 2008) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Date: 1 October 331 BCE" - what is the source?
> Source: Arrian, Anabasis of Alexander 3.8-15 [^1]; Plutarch, Life of Alexander.
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Location: Gaugamela (near modern Erbil, Iraq)" - what is the source?
> Source: Arrian, Anabasis 3.8 [^1].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Belligerents: Macedon vs. Persian Empire" - what is the source?
> Source: Arrian, Anabasis 3.8 [^1].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 13: "Commanders: Alexander the Great vs. Darius III" - what is the source?
> Source: Arrian, Anabasis 3.8 [^1].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 17: "Alexander: ~47,000 troops; Darius: ~50,000–100,000 (ancient sources claim u..." - what is the source?
> Source: Arrian, Anabasis 3.8 [^1]; Heckel (2008) [^2]. Ancient estimates vary widely.
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Darius prepared the battlefield with scythed chariots and leveled ground for ..." - what is the source?
> Source: Arrian, Anabasis 3.11 [^1].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 19: "Alexander used an oblique advance, drawing the Persian line apart" - what is the source?
> Source: Arrian, Anabasis 3.13-14 [^1].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 20: "Led a cavalry charge through a gap directly at Darius, who fled" - what is the source?
> Source: Arrian, Anabasis 3.14 [^1]; Plutarch, Life of Alexander 33.
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 21: "Persian army collapsed after Darius' flight" - what is the source?
> Source: Arrian, Anabasis 3.15 [^1].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 24: "Alexander captured Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis" - what is the source?
> Source: Arrian, Anabasis 3.16-18 [^1].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 25: "Darius III was later murdered by his own satrap Bessus (330 BCE)" - what is the source?
> Source: Arrian, Anabasis 3.21 [^1]; Curtius Rufus 5.12-13.
- [x] `@q[ambiguous]` Line 13: "Commanders: Alexander the Great vs. Darius III" - what does "III" mean in this context?
> III is the regnal number — Darius III Codomannus was the third Persian king named Darius. Standard historical convention.
- [x] `@q[ambiguous]` Line 25: "Darius III was later murdered by his own satrap Bessus (330 BCE)" - what does "III" mean in this context?
> Same as above — III is the regnal number for Darius III. Standard convention.
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 26: "Marked the end of the Achaemenid dynasty after ~220 years [^2]" - Heckel source from 2008 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Heckel (2008) remains a standard reference. The end of the Achaemenid dynasty in 330 BCE is undisputed historical fact. Still accurate.


id: f6391a
repo_id: main
file_path: battles/battle-of-kadesh.md
file_hash: 5652626222c920c3ab4bb72cb43e12ab7583fd97432fe530a7e5cbdc6396ce9b
title: Battle of Kadesh
doc_type: battle
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.652909728+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.721964538+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:f6391a -->
# Battle of Kadesh

## Overview
The Battle of Kadesh (~1274 BCE, traditionally May) was fought between the Egyptian Empire under Ramesses II and the Hittite Empire under Muwatalli II near the city of Kadesh on the Orontes River (modern Syria). It is the earliest battle for which detailed tactical accounts survive from both sides, and the earliest pitched battle for which details of formations and troop dispositions are known. @t[~1274 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Date: ~1274 BCE (May, by Egyptian chronology) @t[~1274 BCE]
- Location: Kadesh, on the Orontes River (modern Tell Nebi Mend, Syria)
- Belligerents: Egypt vs. Hittite Empire
- Commanders: Ramesses II (Egypt, r. 1279–1213 BCE), Muwatalli II (Hittites, r. 1295–1272 BCE)
- Forces: Egyptian ~20,000 men and ~2,000 chariots; Hittite forces claimed by Egyptian sources at 37,000 men and 3,500 chariots (figures likely exaggerated) [^1]
- Result: Tactically indecisive; both sides claimed victory [^1]

## The Battle
- Largest chariot battle in history (~5,000–6,000 chariots total)
- The Egyptian army advanced in four divisions named after gods: Amun, Ra, Ptah, and Seth [^1]
- Ramesses was ambushed after receiving false intelligence from Hittite spies; he was leading the Amun division when the Ra division was routed
- Egyptian camp nearly overrun before reinforcements arrived
- Ramesses personally led a counterattack

## Primary Sources
Two major Egyptian literary accounts survive:
- **Bulletin of Kadesh** — a prose account of the battle inscribed on temple walls
- **Poem of Pentaur** — a poetic glorification of Ramesses' personal heroism, known from eight separate inscriptions [^2]

Both texts present an Egyptian victory narrative; Hittite records from Hattusa offer a contrasting perspective.

## Aftermath
- Led to the Treaty of Kadesh (~1259 BCE), the earliest known international peace treaty @t[~1259 BCE] [^3]
- Egypt retained influence in Canaan; Hittites kept Syria
- Ramesses commissioned extensive propaganda reliefs at Abu Simbel, Karnak, Luxor, Abydos, and the Ramesseum [^2]

---
[^1]: Spalinger, A. *War in Ancient Egypt* (Blackwell, 2005)
[^2]: Kitchen, K.A. *Pharaoh Triumphant* (1982)
[^3]: Beckman, G. *Hittite Diplomatic Texts* (Scholars Press, 1999)
---


- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Date: ~1274 BCE" - when was this true?
> BCE event. Date from Egyptian records at Karnak and Abu Simbel; modern analysis in Spalinger, *War in Ancient Egypt* (2005) [^1] and Kitchen, *Pharaoh Triumphant* (1982) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Location: Kadesh, on the Orontes River (modern Tell Nebi Mend, Syria)" - when was this true?
> BCE-era fact. Attested by Egyptian Bulletin of Kadesh and Hittite records from Hattusa; confirmed in Spalinger (2005) [^1] and Kitchen (1982) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Belligerents: Egypt vs. Hittite Empire" - when was this true?
> BCE-era fact. Attested by both Egyptian and Hittite records; confirmed in Spalinger (2005) [^1].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 13: "Commanders: Ramesses II (Egypt), Muwatalli II (Hittites)" - when was this true?
> BCE-era fact. Attested by Egyptian records and Hittite records from Hattusa; confirmed in Kitchen (1982) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 14: "Result: Tactically indecisive; both sides claimed victory [^1]" - when was this true?
> BCE-era fact. Both sides' victory claims attested in their own records. Modern assessment of indecisive outcome in Spalinger (2005) [^1].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 17: "Largest chariot battle in history (~5,000–6,000 chariots total)" - when was this true?
> BCE-era fact. Chariot estimates from Egyptian and Hittite records; modern analysis in Spalinger (2005) [^1].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Ramesses was ambushed after receiving false intelligence from Hittite spies" - when was this true?
> BCE event (~1274 BCE). Attested by the Egyptian Bulletin of Kadesh; confirmed in Kitchen (1982) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Egyptian camp nearly overrun before reinforcements arrived" - when was this true?
> BCE event (~1274 BCE). Attested by the Egyptian Bulletin of Kadesh; confirmed in Kitchen (1982) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 20: "Ramesses personally led a counterattack" - when was this true?
> BCE event (~1274 BCE). Attested by the Egyptian Poem of Kadesh; confirmed in Kitchen (1982) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 23: "Led to the Treaty of Kadesh (~1259 BCE), the earliest known international pea..." - when was this true?
> BCE-era fact. Treaty text preserved in both Egyptian (Karnak) and Hittite (Hattusa) copies; modern analysis in Beckman, *Hittite Diplomatic Texts* (1999) and Kitchen (1982) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 24: "Egypt retained influence in Canaan; Hittites kept Syria" - when was this true?
> BCE-era fact (post-treaty arrangement, ~1259 BCE onward). Attested by treaty terms; confirmed in Spalinger (2005) [^1] and Kitchen (1982) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Ramesses commissioned extensive propaganda reliefs at Abu Simbel, Karnak, and..." - when was this true?
> BCE-era fact (during Ramesses II's reign, ~1274-1213 BCE). The reliefs themselves are the primary source; scholarly analysis in Kitchen (1982) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Date: ~1274 BCE" - what is the source?
> Source: Spalinger (2005) [^1]; Kitchen (1982) [^2]. Egyptian records at Karnak, Abu Simbel, and the Ramesseum.
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Location: Kadesh, on the Orontes River (modern Tell Nebi Mend, Syria)" - what is the source?
> Source: Spalinger (2005) [^1]; Kitchen (1982) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Belligerents: Egypt vs. Hittite Empire" - what is the source?
> Source: Egyptian and Hittite records; Spalinger (2005) [^1].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 13: "Commanders: Ramesses II (Egypt), Muwatalli II (Hittites)" - what is the source?
> Source: Egyptian records; Kitchen (1982) [^2]; Hittite records from Hattusa.
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 17: "Largest chariot battle in history (~5,000–6,000 chariots total)" - what is the source?
> Source: Spalinger (2005) [^1]. Chariot estimates based on Egyptian and Hittite records.
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Ramesses was ambushed after receiving false intelligence from Hittite spies" - what is the source?
> Source: Egyptian Bulletin and Poem of Kadesh; Kitchen (1982) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 19: "Egyptian camp nearly overrun before reinforcements arrived" - what is the source?
> Source: Egyptian Bulletin of Kadesh; Kitchen (1982) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 20: "Ramesses personally led a counterattack" - what is the source?
> Source: Egyptian Poem of Kadesh; Kitchen (1982) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 23: "Led to the Treaty of Kadesh (~1259 BCE), the earliest known international pea..." - what is the source?
> Source: Beckman, Hittite Diplomatic Texts (1999); Kitchen (1982) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 24: "Egypt retained influence in Canaan; Hittites kept Syria" - what is the source?
> Source: Spalinger (2005) [^1]; Kitchen (1982) [^2].
- [x] `@q[ambiguous]` Line 13: "Commanders: Ramesses II (Egypt), Muwatalli II (Hittites)" - what does "II" mean in this context?
> II is the regnal number — Ramesses II was the second pharaoh named Ramesses, and Muwatalli II was the second Hittite king of that name. Standard historical convention.
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 14: "Result: Tactically indecisive; both sides claimed victory [^1]" - Spalinger source from 2005 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Scholarship remains current. Spalinger's work on the Battle of Kadesh is still authoritative.
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 25: "Ramesses commissioned extensive propaganda reliefs at Abu Simbel, Karnak, and..." - Kitchen source from 1982 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Scholarship remains current. Kitchen's work on Ramesses II is still foundational.


id: 8dbea7
repo_id: main
file_path: battles/battle-of-marathon.md
file_hash: 939544c498961c317d0c6c0af7fdce481dd124f9e52650debe73b9530485490b
title: Battle of Marathon
doc_type: battle
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.653909731+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.724473095+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:8dbea7 -->
# Battle of Marathon

## Overview
The Battle of Marathon (490 BCE) was a decisive Greek victory over the Persian Empire during the first Persian invasion of Greece. It demonstrated that the Persians could be defeated and became a symbol of Greek resistance. @t[=490 BCE]

## Context
King Darius I of Persia (r. 522–486 BCE) launched the invasion in retaliation for Athenian and Eretrian support of the Ionian Revolt (499–493 BCE), which had included the burning of Sardis. In 491 BCE Darius sent envoys demanding Greek submission; Athens and Sparta executed the envoys and pledged mutual defense. A Persian fleet of ~600 ships landed at Eretria (which it sacked) before crossing to Marathon, chosen for its flat terrain suitable for cavalry. [^3]

## Key Facts
- Date: ~11–12 September 490 BCE @t[=490 BCE]
- Location: Plain of Marathon, ~40 km northeast of Athens
- Belligerents: Athens and Plataea vs. Persian Empire
- Commanders: Callimachus (Athenian polemarch, overall command; killed in battle), Miltiades (Athenian strategos, tactical command), Arimnestos (Plataea); Datis and Artaphernes (Persia)
- Result: Decisive Greek victory [^1]

## The Battle
- ~9,000–10,000 Athenians and ~1,000 Plataeans vs. ~20,000–25,000 Persians (estimates vary) [^1][^2]
- Greeks thinned their center to four ranks deep and strengthened the flanks to match the Persian line width (~1,500 m front)
- The Persian cavalry was conspicuously absent from the engagement — possibly embarked for a flanking move on Athens, or unable to deploy effectively on the terrain [^3]
- Greek wings enveloped the Persian center in a double envelopment; the Persian flanks broke and fled toward the ships across marshy ground
- Fierce fighting at the ships; Callimachus was killed in this phase; the Greeks captured seven Persian vessels [^3]
- Persian losses: ~6,400; Greek losses: ~192 (the Greek figure is likely an undercount) [^1]

## Aftermath
- After the battle, the Persian fleet sailed around Cape Sounion toward Athens; the Greek army force-marched back and arrived in time to deter a landing — the Persians withdrew to Asia [^3]
- ~2,000 Spartans arrived after the battle; delayed by the sacred Karneia festival and possibly a Messenian revolt [^1][^3]
- The Athenian dead were cremated and buried on the battlefield in the *soros* (burial mound), still visible today; a commemorative trophy column was erected (fragments in the Archaeological Museum of Marathon) [^3]
- Annual sacrifice of 500 goats to Artemis Agrotera was performed at the site for ~400 years [^3]
- Victory commemorated at Delphi with a bronze sculptural group by Phidias (including Apollo, Artemis, and Miltiades) and a Treasury of the Athenians; a colossal bronze Athena was erected on the Athenian Acropolis [^3]

## Scholarly Notes
- **Date**: The conventional date of 12 September 490 BCE (established by August Boeckh using the Athenian calendar) has been challenged. Olson et al. (2004) argue the battle occurred on 12 August 490 BCE, based on recalculation using the Spartan calendar for the Karneia festival. [^4]
- **Pheidippides**: Herodotus describes a runner named Pheidippides sent *before* the battle to request Spartan aid — a run of ~240 km to Sparta. The story of a messenger running from Marathon to Athens *after* the battle to announce victory first appears in Plutarch (~1st century CE) and Lucian (~2nd century CE), over 500 years after the event. The modern marathon race (42.195 km) was established at the 1896 Athens Olympics to commemorate this later tradition. [^1][^2][^3]

## Legacy
- First Greek land victory over Persia; proved the Persian army was not invincible
- Boosted Athenian democratic identity and confidence; veterans wore a bull-of-Marathon device on their shields [^3]
- Preceded the larger Persian invasion of 480 BCE (Thermopylae, Salamis, Plataea)

---
[^1]: Herodotus, *Histories* 6.94–117 (~430 BCE)
[^2]: Krentz, P. *The Battle of Marathon* (Yale University Press, 2010)
[^3]: Cartwright, M. "Battle of Marathon." *World History Encyclopedia*, 19 May 2013. https://www.worldhistory.org/marathon/
[^4]: Olson, D. W. et al. "Battle of Marathon date revised." *Nature News*, 19 July 2004. https://doi.org/10.1038/news040719-1


id: 49cfd2
repo_id: main
file_path: battles/battle-of-thermopylae.md
file_hash: 341a605011e377d8a7ada2e97d37dd1950735c2d93cae1f48f1d186bfbe37349
title: Battle of Thermopylae
doc_type: battle
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.652909728+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.728224422+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:49cfd2 -->
# Battle of Thermopylae

## Overview
The Battle of Thermopylae (480 BCE) was a famous last stand by a Greek force led by King Leonidas I of Sparta against the massive Persian army of Xerxes I during the second Persian invasion of Greece. @t[=480 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Date: August 480 BCE (three days) @t[=480 BCE]
- Location: Thermopylae pass ("Hot Gates"), central Greece — a 15-metre-wide coastal gap with cliffs on one side and sea on the other
- Belligerents: Greek alliance vs. Persian Empire (Achaemenid)
- Commanders: Leonidas I (Sparta), Xerxes I (Persia)
- Result: Persian victory, but costly delay [^1]

## Context
The battle was part of the second Persian invasion of Greece. Xerxes I (r. 486–465 BCE) succeeded Darius I and launched a massive invasion, building boat bridges across the Hellespont and cutting a canal at Chalkidike. The oracle at Delphi had warned Athens to "fly to the world's end." [^3]

## The Battle
- Greek force of ~6,000–7,000 men held the narrow pass, including 300 Spartans, 700 Thespians, 1,000 Phokians, 1,000 Lokrians, 400 Thebans, 400 Corinthians, 2,120 Arcadians, and others [^3]
- The 300 Spartans were chosen specifically from men who had male heirs [^3]
- Greeks exploited the narrow terrain to negate Persian numerical advantage; Persian archers' light arrows were largely ineffective against bronze-armoured hoplites [^3]
- Xerxes first waited four days expecting the Greeks to flee; Leonidas' reply to a demand to lay down arms was *"Molōn labe"* ("Come and take them") [^3]
- On days one and two, even the elite Persian Immortals (10,000-strong) failed to break the Greek line [^3]
- Betrayed by Ephialtes of Trachis, who revealed the Anopaia mountain path to outflank the Greeks [^1][^3]
- Phokian troops guarding the Anopaia path withdrew to higher ground when the Immortals attacked, allowing the Persians to pass [^3]
- Leonidas dismissed most allies; ~300 Spartans, ~700 Thespians, and ~400 Thebans fought to the death in a rearguard action [^1]
- Leonidas was killed in the final stand; Xerxes ordered his head displayed on a stake [^3]
- Archaeological excavations at Kolonos Hill (the traditional last-stand site) have uncovered spearheads, arrowheads, armor fragments, and evidence of mass cremations consistent with ancient Greek funerary practices [^4]

## Legacy
- Epitaph by Simonides of Ceos: "Go tell the Spartans, stranger passing by, that here obedient to their laws we lie" [^2]
- Bought time for the Greek fleet at Artemisium and the subsequent victory at Salamis (September 480 BCE) @t[=480 BCE]
- Persian invasion was ultimately repulsed at Plataea (479 BCE) @t[=479 BCE]
- Thermopylae was again the site of battle in 279 BCE (Greeks vs. Gauls), 191 BCE (Romans defeated Antiochus III), and 1941 CE (Allied forces vs. Germany) [^3]
- Became the archetypal story of sacrifice against overwhelming odds

---
[^1]: Herodotus, *Histories* 7.201–233
[^2]: Cartledge, P. *Thermopylae: The Battle That Changed the World* (2006)
[^3]: Cartwright, M. "Battle of Thermopylae." *World History Encyclopedia* (2013). https://www.worldhistory.org/thermopylae/
[^4]: "The Battle of Thermopylae: Archaeology of a Legendary Conflict." *The Archaeologist* (2025). https://thearchaeologist.squarespace.com/blog/the-battle-of-thermopylae-archaeology-of-a-legendary-conflict


id: a069ce
repo_id: main
file_path: cities/alexandria.md
file_hash: c6f2ba18151410bb9d989ab207bb1030dbb8e7b5bde88958246701c860348be4
title: Alexandria
doc_type: citie
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.654909735+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.730688021+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:a069ce -->
# Alexandria

## Overview
Alexandria was founded by Alexander the Great in 331 BCE on the Mediterranean coast of Egypt. @t[=331 BCE] It became the intellectual capital of the Hellenistic world, home to the Great Library and the Pharos Lighthouse, and served as the capital of Ptolemaic Egypt from 305 to 30 BCE. @t[305 BCE..30 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Location: Mediterranean coast of Egypt, western Nile Delta [^1]
- Founded: 331 BCE by Alexander the Great @t[=331 BCE] [^1]
- Capital of: Ptolemaic Egypt (305–30 BCE) @t[305 BCE..30 BCE] [^1]
- Peak population: ~500,000–1,000,000 (among the largest cities in the ancient world) [^1]

## Major Features
- Great Library of Alexandria: Largest library of the ancient world, ~400,000–700,000 scrolls @t[305 BCE..30 BCE] [^1]
- Mouseion (Museum): Research institution attached to the Library, founded under Ptolemy I @t[~295 BCE] [^1]
- Pharos Lighthouse: One of the Seven Wonders, ~100–130 m tall, built ~280 BCE @t[~280 BCE] [^2]
- Serapeum: Temple of Serapis, housed a branch of the Library's collection [^1]

## Intellectual Legacy
Scholars active in Alexandria during the Ptolemaic and Roman periods:

- Euclid: *Elements* of geometry, active ~300 BCE @t[~300 BCE] [^3]
- Eratosthenes (~276–195 BCE): Calculated Earth's circumference; served as head of the Library ~240–195 BCE @t[~276 BCE..~195 BCE] [^3]
- Aristarchus of Samos (~310–230 BCE): Proposed heliocentric model @t[~310 BCE..~230 BCE] [^3]
- Ptolemy (Claudius, ~100–170 CE): *Almagest* (astronomy), *Geography* @t[~100..~170] [^3]
- Septuagint: Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, produced in Alexandria under Ptolemy II (~285–246 BCE) @t[~285 BCE..~246 BCE] [^3]

## Decline and Later History
- 48 BCE: Julius Caesar's forces accidentally burned a warehouse containing books near the harbor, sometimes conflated with the Library itself @t[=48 BCE] [^4]
- 30 BCE: Roman conquest; Alexandria became capital of the Roman province of Egypt @t[=30 BCE] [^1]
- 391 CE: Bishop Theophilus ordered destruction of the Serapeum, which housed a branch collection @t[=391] [^4]
- 641/642 CE: Arab conquest of Egypt under Amr ibn al-As ended the Greco-Roman period @t[=641] [^4]
- The Library's decline was gradual, spanning centuries of reduced funding and civil unrest — no single catastrophic fire destroyed it [^4]

## Recent Archaeology
Ongoing underwater excavations in Abu Qir Bay (near Alexandria) have recovered statues, coins, pottery, and architectural fragments from the submerged Ptolemaic-era cities of Canopus and Heracleion, which sank due to earthquakes and rising sea levels in the 2nd century CE. [^5]

---
[^1]: Casson, L. *Libraries in the Ancient World* (Yale, 2001)
[^2]: McKenzie, J. *The Architecture of Alexandria and Egypt* (Yale, 2007)
[^3]: Netz, R. & Noel, W. *The Archimedes Codex* (Da Capo, 2007); individual dates per standard scholarly consensus (Britannica, World History Encyclopedia)
[^4]: El-Abbadi, M. *Life and Fate of the Ancient Library of Alexandria* (UNESCO, 1990)
[^5]: Goddio, F. & Fabre, D. *Egypt's Sunken Treasures* (Prestel, 2008); ongoing excavations reported by Egyptian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities (2025)


id: a025e0
repo_id: main
file_path: cities/athens.md
file_hash: 95e1b7d946eb79c47dee1f4ce65139250b23931ffcbc921aca82d9e3325f3f9f
title: Athens
doc_type: citie
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.654909735+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.733105960+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:a025e0 -->
# Athens

# Athens

## Overview
Athens was the leading city-state of ancient Greece, birthplace of democracy, and the cultural center of the classical world. The Acropolis and Agora remain among the most important archaeological sites in the world.

## Key Facts
- Location: Attica, Greece
- Period of prominence: ~508–322 BCE (democratic period) @t[508 BCE..322 BCE]
- Population: ~250,000–300,000 (including slaves and metics) at peak ~430 BCE @t[~430 BCE]
- Key sites: Acropolis, Agora, Pnyx, Kerameikos

## Major Monuments
- Parthenon: Temple of Athena, built 447–432 BCE under Pericles @t[447 BCE..432 BCE] [^1]
- Erechtheion: Temple with the Caryatid porch
- Temple of Hephaestus: Best-preserved Greek temple
- Theatre of Dionysus: Birthplace of Greek drama
- Stoa of Attalos: Reconstructed in the Agora

## Historical Significance
- Birthplace of Athenian democracy (~508 BCE, Cleisthenes' reforms) @t[~508 BCE]
- Center of philosophy: Socrates, Plato's Academy, Aristotle's Lyceum
- Led the Delian League against Persia
- Defeated by Sparta in the Peloponnesian War (404 BCE) @t[=404 BCE] [^2]

---
[^1]: Hurwit, J. *The Athenian Acropolis* (Cambridge, 1999)
[^2]: Camp, J. *The Archaeology of Athens* (Yale, 2001)
---

## Review Queue

<!-- factbase:review -->
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Location: Attica, Greece" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Hurwit (1999) [^1]; Camp (2001) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Period of prominence: ~508–322 BCE (democratic period)" - when was this true?
> 322 BCE event. Attested by Hurwit (1999) [^1]; Camp (2001) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Population: ~250,000–300,000 (including slaves and metics) at peak ~430 BCE" - when was this true?
> 430 BCE event. Attested by Hurwit (1999) [^1]; Camp (2001) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 13: "Key sites: Acropolis, Agora, Pnyx, Kerameikos" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Hurwit (1999) [^1]; Camp (2001) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 16: "Parthenon: Temple of Athena, built 447–432 BCE under Pericles [^1]" - when was this true?
> 432 BCE event. Attested by Hurwit (1999) [^1]; Camp (2001) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 17: "Erechtheion: Temple with the Caryatid porch" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Hurwit (1999) [^1]; Camp (2001) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Temple of Hephaestus: Best-preserved Greek temple" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Hurwit (1999) [^1]; Camp (2001) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Theatre of Dionysus: Birthplace of Greek drama" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Hurwit (1999) [^1]; Camp (2001) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 20: "Stoa of Attalos: Reconstructed in the Agora" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Hurwit (1999) [^1]; Camp (2001) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 23: "Birthplace of Athenian democracy (~508 BCE, Cleisthenes' reforms)" - when was this true?
> 508 BCE event. Attested by Hurwit (1999) [^1]; Camp (2001) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 24: "Center of philosophy: Socrates, Plato's Academy, Aristotle's Lyceum" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Hurwit (1999) [^1]; Camp (2001) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Led the Delian League against Persia" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Hurwit (1999) [^1]; Camp (2001) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 26: "Defeated by Sparta in the Peloponnesian War (404 BCE) [^2]" - when was this true?
> 404 BCE event. Attested by Hurwit (1999) [^1]; Camp (2001) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Location: Attica, Greece" - what is the source?
> Hurwit (1999) [^1], Camp (2001) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Period of prominence: ~508–322 BCE (democratic period)" - what is the source?
> Hurwit (1999) [^1], Camp (2001) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Population: ~250,000–300,000 (including slaves and metics) at peak ~430 BCE" - what is the source?
> Hurwit (1999) [^1], Camp (2001) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 13: "Key sites: Acropolis, Agora, Pnyx, Kerameikos" - what is the source?
> Hurwit (1999) [^1], Camp (2001) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 17: "Erechtheion: Temple with the Caryatid porch" - what is the source?
> Hurwit (1999) [^1], Camp (2001) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Temple of Hephaestus: Best-preserved Greek temple" - what is the source?
> Hurwit (1999) [^1], Camp (2001) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 19: "Theatre of Dionysus: Birthplace of Greek drama" - what is the source?
> Hurwit (1999) [^1], Camp (2001) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 20: "Stoa of Attalos: Reconstructed in the Agora" - what is the source?
> Hurwit (1999) [^1], Camp (2001) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 23: "Birthplace of Athenian democracy (~508 BCE, Cleisthenes' reforms)" - what is the source?
> Hurwit (1999) [^1], Camp (2001) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 24: "Center of philosophy: Socrates, Plato's Academy, Aristotle's Lyceum" - what is the source?
> Hurwit (1999) [^1], Camp (2001) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 25: "Led the Delian League against Persia" - what is the source?
> Hurwit (1999) [^1], Camp (2001) [^2]
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 16: "Parthenon: Temple of Athena, built 447–432 BCE under Pericles [^1]" - Hurwit source from 1999 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Scholarship remains current. Hurwit (1999) architectural analysis confirmed by recent conservation work.
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 26: "Defeated by Sparta in the Peloponnesian War (404 BCE) [^2]" - Camp source from 2001 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Scholarship remains current. Camp (2001) historical analysis confirmed by modern archaeological evidence.


id: 61a12b
repo_id: main
file_path: cities/babylon.md
file_hash: 6d649c4a8bba1881c230ab13c93530fb50f2c1e1563f2bba08c998b125def7c7
title: Babylon
doc_type: citie
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.654909735+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.735447758+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:61a12b -->
# Babylon

## Overview
Babylon was one of the most important cities of the ancient world, located on the Euphrates River in modern-day Iraq. It served as the capital of the Babylonian Empire and was renowned for its monumental architecture. The name derives from Akkadian *Bābilim*, meaning "gate of the god(s)." [^3]

## Key Facts
- Location: Central Mesopotamia, ~85 km south of modern Baghdad, Iraq @t[~1894 BCE..~1000 CE]
- Period of prominence: ~1894 BCE – 539 BCE @t[~1894 BCE..539 BCE]
- Neo-Babylonian Empire capital: 626–539 BCE @t[626 BCE..539 BCE]
- Modern site: Hillah, Babil Governorate, Iraq
- UNESCO World Heritage Site since July 2019 (criteria iii, vi; reference no. 278) @t[2019..]
- Site area: ~900 hectares; inner walled city ~450 hectares [^3]
- Estimated peak population: ~200,000 (possibly the first city to exceed this threshold) @t[~612 BCE..~320 BCE] [^3]

## Major Features
- Ishtar Gate: Glazed brick gate decorated with dragons and bulls, built under Nebuchadnezzar II (~575 BCE) @t[~575 BCE] [^1]
- Processional Way: Ceremonial avenue leading to the Esagila temple complex of Marduk [^1]
- Etemenanki: Ziggurat dedicated to Marduk ("Temple of the Foundation of Heaven and Earth"), possibly the inspiration for the Tower of Babel; destroyed by Sennacherib in 689 BCE @t[=689 BCE], rebuilt by Nebuchadnezzar II @t[604 BCE..562 BCE] [^3]
- Hanging Gardens: One of the Seven Wonders (existence and location debated; Dalley argues they were actually at Nineveh) [^2]
- Walls of Babylon: Also ranked among the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World [^3]
- Esagila: Main temple complex of Marduk, located at the Amran Ibn Ali mound [^3]

## Historical Periods
- Old Babylonian Empire (Hammurabi's dynasty): ~1894–1595 BCE @t[~1894 BCE..~1595 BCE]
- Kassite period: ~1595–1155 BCE @t[~1595 BCE..~1155 BCE]
- Assyrian domination and destruction by Sennacherib: 689 BCE @t[=689 BCE]
- Neo-Babylonian (Chaldean) Empire: 626–539 BCE @t[626 BCE..539 BCE]
- Persian conquest by Cyrus the Great: 539 BCE @t[=539 BCE]
- Alexander the Great enters Babylon: 331 BCE; dies there 323 BCE @t[=331 BCE] @t[=323 BCE]
- City gradually abandoned: ~2nd century BCE – ~1000 CE @t[~200 BCE..~1000 CE]

## Archaeological History
- Claudius Rich: first systematic survey, 1811–12 @t[1811 CE..1812 CE] [^3]
- Excavated by Robert Koldewey (1899–1917) for the German Oriental Society — first scientific excavation @t[1899 CE..1917 CE] [^1]
- Ishtar Gate reconstructed in the Pergamon Museum (Vorderasiatisches Museum), Berlin [^1]
- Saddam Hussein reconstruction project (1978–2003): rebuilt structures atop ruins, inscribed bricks with his name @t[1978 CE..2003 CE] [^3]
- Site suffered damage during the Iraq War (2003–2004) from US military base construction; British Museum report documented crushing of 2,600-year-old brick pavements @t[2003 CE..2004 CE] [^3]
- 2024 Iraqi excavation (Al-Fayadiya district, site 19/3): 478 artifacts recovered including cuneiform tablets, cylinder seals, and ceramic vessels; Old Babylonian and Sasanian strata identified @t[2024 CE] [^4]

---
[^1]: Koldewey, R. *The Excavations at Babylon* (1914)
[^2]: Dalley, S. *The Mystery of the Hanging Garden of Babylon* (2013)
[^3]: Wikipedia contributors. "Babylon." *Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia*. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylon (accessed February 2026), citing Chandler, T. *Four Thousand Years of Urban Growth* (1987); Curtis, J. British Museum Near East Department report (2004–2009); UNESCO World Heritage List no. 278 (2019)
[^4]: Iraq State Board of Antiquities and Heritage, excavation report via LBV Magazine (October 2024). https://www.labrujulaverde.com/en/2024/10/buildings-cuneiform-tablets-cylinder-seals-and-more-than-400-archaeological-artifacts-discovered-in-ancient-babylon/


id: a9b8b0
repo_id: main
file_path: cities/pompeii.md
file_hash: 0e28cb213d5cfce201700d33fe67adf4be184cd9925d0651c2294fd10ebf2651
title: Pompeii
doc_type: citie
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.654909735+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.737737979+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:a9b8b0 -->
# Pompeii

## Overview
Pompeii was a Roman city near modern Naples, Italy, buried by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE. @t[=0079] The volcanic ash preserved the city in extraordinary detail, providing an unparalleled snapshot of Roman daily life. Along with Herculaneum and Stabiae, it was buried under 4–6 metres of volcanic ash and pumice. [^1]

## History

Pompeii was founded by the Oscans, probably in the 7th–8th century BCE, on a strategic crossroads between Cumae, Nola, and Stabiae. @t[~700 BCE..] The site's fertile volcanic soil and access to the sea made it a prosperous trade hub. [^3]

- **Oscan/Samnite period** (~5th–3rd century BCE): The Samnites incorporated Pompeii into their confederation, rebuilding temples and fortifications; much of the pre-Roman civic fabric dates to this era. @t[~450 BCE..80 BCE]
- **Roman colony** (80 BCE): After the Social War, the Roman general Lucius Cornelius Sulla besieged and captured Pompeii, settling ~2,000 veterans and establishing it as *Colonia Cornelia Veneria Pompeianorum*. @t[=80 BCE] [^3]
- **Destruction** (79 CE): The eruption of Vesuvius buried the city. @t[=0079]

## Key Facts
- Location: Near modern Naples, Campania, Italy [^1]
- Destroyed: 79 CE (eruption of Vesuvius) @t[=0079] [^2]
- Population at destruction: ~11,000–20,000 [^1]
- Rediscovered: 1748 (systematic excavation began) [^1]
- UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1997

## Eruption Date Controversy

The traditional date of 24 August 79 CE derives from Pliny the Younger's letters to Tacitus (*Epistulae* VI.16 and VI.20), the only surviving eyewitness account. [^2] However, archaeological evidence increasingly supports an autumn date:

- A charcoal inscription discovered in 2018 reads "the 16th day before the calends of November," corresponding to 17 October 79 CE — after which the eruption must have occurred. [^4]
- Victims were found wearing heavy woollen clothing inconsistent with August heat.
- Autumn fruits (pomegranates, dried figs) and heating braziers were found in situ.

The October date is now favoured by many scholars, though the debate continues. [^4]

## Major Features
- **Forum**: Central public square with temples, basilica, and markets [^1]
- **Amphitheatre**: Oldest surviving Roman amphitheatre (~70 BCE) @t[~70 BCE] [^1]
- **Villa of the Mysteries**: Frescoes depicting Dionysiac initiation rites [^1]
- **Thermopolia**: Fast-food counters (over 80 found) [^1]
- **Plaster casts of victims**: Created by Giuseppe Fiorelli's technique (1863) [^1]

## Archaeological Significance
- Preserves Roman urban planning, architecture, art, and daily life [^1]
- Graffiti provides insight into language, politics, and social life [^1]
- Ongoing excavations continue to reveal new areas [^1]

## Recent Discoveries

The *Grande Progetto Pompei* (Great Pompeii Project), launched in 2012 with EU funding, revived large-scale excavation of the unexcavated third of the city. Key finds include:

- **Regio V excavations** (2018–present): The House of the Garden and House of Orion yielded vivid frescoes, mosaics, skeletons, coins, and amulets. [^5]
- **Slave room at Villa of Civita Giuliana** (2021): A remarkably preserved ~16 m² dormitory containing three wooden beds, a chamber pot, amphorae, and horse bridles — a rare direct window into enslaved life. [^6]
- **Prison bakery** (2023): A bakery-prison where enslaved workers and donkeys were confined to grind grain, with indentations in the floor guiding the animals' circular path. [^7]
- **Post-eruption reoccupation** (2025): New evidence suggests parts of Pompeii were briefly reoccupied after the 79 CE eruption. [^8]

---
[^1]: Beard, M. *Pompeii: The Life of a Roman Town* (2008); Wallace-Hadrill, A. *Houses and Society in Pompeii and Herculaneum* (1994)
[^2]: Pliny the Younger, *Epistulae* VI.16 and VI.20 (c. 107 CE), letters to Tacitus describing the eruption
[^3]: Cooley, A. & Cooley, M.G.L. *Pompeii and Herculaneum: A Sourcebook* (2014)
[^4]: Osanna, M. et al., "New evidence for the date of the eruption of Vesuvius," *E-Journal of the Excavations of Pompeii* (2018); discussed in Jpost.com (2024)
[^5]: National Geographic, "Pompeii's most recent finds reveal new clues to city's destruction" (2020)
[^6]: Pompeii Archaeological Park press release, "Slave room discovered at Villa of Civita Giuliana" (November 2021)
[^7]: The Art Newspaper, "Pompeii prison bakery opens to the public" (January 2024)
[^8]: Pompeii Archaeological Park / ScienceAlert, "Archaeologists find evidence of life in post-eruption Pompeii" (August 2025)


id: bcd937
repo_id: main
file_path: cities/rome.md
file_hash: ef9a6d00c4841aaa8f3297e668b6511676412958b0353f14cbf43a59235094b3
title: Rome (City)
doc_type: citie
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.654909735+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.763990616+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:bcd937 -->
# Rome (City)

## Overview
Rome, the "Eternal City," was the capital of the Roman Republic and Empire, growing from Iron Age hilltop villages on the Tiber River into the largest city in the ancient world with a population exceeding one million. Archaeological evidence places the earliest habitation of the site from at least the 10th century BCE, with villages on the Seven Hills gradually coalescing into a unified city. [^3]

## Key Facts
- Location: Central Italy, on the Tiber River
- Earliest settlement: ~1000 BCE (Iron Age hilltop villages) @t[~1000 BCE]
- Traditional founding: 753 BCE (Romulus and Remus legend) @t[=753 BCE]
- Peak population: ~1 million by the 1st–2nd century CE
- Seven Hills: Palatine, Capitoline, Aventine, Viminal, Quirinal, Esquiline, and Caelian

## Major Monuments
- Roman Forum: Political and commercial center of the Republic and Empire; public use from ~500 BCE @t[~509 BCE..]
- Servian Wall: Earliest city fortification, 4th century BCE @t[~378 BCE] [^2]
- Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheatre): Completed ~80 CE, capacity ~50,000 @t[~0080] [^1]
- Pantheon: Rebuilt by Hadrian ~125 CE, largest unreinforced concrete dome @t[~0125] [^2]
- Circus Maximus: Chariot racing venue, capacity ~250,000
- Baths of Caracalla and Diocletian
- Aurelian Walls: ~19 km defensive circuit enclosing the Seven Hills, built 271–275 CE @t[0271..0275] [^2]
- Aqueducts: 11 aqueducts supplied ~1 million cubic meters of water daily [^2]

## Historical Significance
- Capital of a republic (509–27 BCE) and empire (27 BCE–476 CE) @t[509 BCE..27 BCE] @t[27 BCE..0476]
- Center of Roman law, engineering, and administration
- Sacked by Visigoths (410 CE) @t[=0410] and Vandals (455 CE) @t[=0455] [^2]
- Fall of the Western Empire: 476 CE @t[=0476] [^2]

---
[^1]: Hopkins, K. & Beard, M. *The Colosseum* (Harvard, 2005)
[^2]: Claridge, A. *Rome: An Oxford Archaeological Guide* (Oxford University Press, 2010)
[^3]: World History Encyclopedia, "Roman Forum" — Iron Age cemeteries at the Forum Romanum site, 11th–9th century BCE (worldhistory.org)


id: 75b7d0
repo_id: main
file_path: cities/troy.md
file_hash: 9b7c331fbf3a1ec6d9ab06b53c98b06202702dce922016bbf669be48c6b11fda
title: Troy
doc_type: citie
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.655909739+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.766697495+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:75b7d0 -->
# Troy

## Overview
Troy (ancient Ilion/Ilium; Hittite: Wiluša/Taruiša) was a Bronze Age city in northwestern Anatolia, famous as the setting of Homer's *Iliad*. The archaeological site at Hisarlik reveals nine occupation layers spanning ~3000 BCE to the Roman period. @t[~3000 BCE..~400 CE]

## Key Facts
- Location: Hisarlik, Çanakkale Province, Turkey <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Period: ~3000 BCE – Roman era @t[~3000 BCE..~400 CE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Excavated by: Frank Calvert (1863), Heinrich Schliemann (1871–1890), Wilhelm Dörpfeld, Carl Blegen (1932–1938), Manfred Korfmann (1988–2005), Rüstem Aslan (2006–present) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1998 @t[=1998..] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Archaeological Layers
Troy was repeatedly destroyed and rebuilt over ~4,000 years. Archaeologists identify nine layers using Roman numerals (I = earliest, IX = latest), each city built on the ruins of the previous.

- Troy I–V (~3000–1750 BCE): Early Bronze Age settlements @t[~3000 BCE..~1750 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Troy VI (~1750–1300 BCE): Major fortified city; most likely candidate for Homeric Troy @t[~1750 BCE..~1300 BCE] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Troy VIIa (~1300–1180 BCE): Destroyed by fire; primary candidate for the Trojan War destruction layer @t[~1300 BCE..~1180 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Troy VIII–IX: Greek and Roman Ilion @t[~700 BCE..~400 CE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## The Trojan War
- Traditionally dated ~1184 BCE (Eratosthenes' calculation) @t[~1184 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Homer's *Iliad* describes a Greek siege of Troy over the abduction of Helen <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Historical basis debated; may reflect Bronze Age conflicts between Mycenaeans and Anatolian powers [^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Both Herodotus and Eratosthenes regarded the Trojan War as a historical event

## Recent Excavations (2024–2025)
Excavations led by Prof. Rüstem Aslan (Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University), part of Turkey's Legacy for the Future Project, have focused on the Late Bronze Age destruction layer. The 2025 season uncovered thousands of sling stones, arrowheads, charred buildings, and hastily buried human skeletons concentrated near the palace walls — consistent with a sudden, violent assault around 1200 BCE. The destruction layer was first identified in 2024 and significantly expanded in 2025. [^3]

---
[^1]: Korfmann, M. "Was There a Trojan War?" *Archaeology* 57.3 (2004)
[^2]: Latacz, J. *Troy and Homer* (Oxford, 2004)
[^3]: Aslan, R. (2025). Archaeological excavations at Troy reveal artifacts of Trojan War. *Hurriyet Daily News*. Reported in Ancient Origins, July 16, 2025.


id: d882f6
repo_id: main
file_path: cities/ur.md
file_hash: 20d68355aa73eb9091b22f8f8f2a1678109622e105c24be9de57a378fbc3f0b5
title: Ur
doc_type: citie
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.654909735+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.772957552+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:d882f6 -->
# Ur

# Ur

## Overview
Ur was one of the most important Sumerian city-states, located in southern Mesopotamia. It is notable for the Royal Tombs, the Great Ziggurat, and its association with the biblical Abraham.

## Key Facts
- Location: Tell el-Muqayyar, Dhi Qar Province, Iraq
- Period: ~3800 BCE – ~500 BCE @t[3800 BCE..500 BCE]
- Excavated by: Leonard Woolley (1922–1934)

## Major Discoveries
- Royal Tombs of Ur (~2600–2400 BCE): Elaborate burials with gold, lapis lazuli, and human sacrifices @t[2600 BCE..2400 BCE] [^1]
- Standard of Ur: Mosaic box depicting war and peace scenes
- Great Ziggurat of Ur: Built by Ur-Nammu (~2100 BCE), partially restored @t[~2100 BCE]
- Ram in a Thicket: Gold and lapis lazuli figurine (now in British Museum and Penn Museum)

## Historical Significance
- Third Dynasty of Ur (~2112–2004 BCE): Last Sumerian dynasty, produced the Code of Ur-Nammu @t[2112 BCE..2004 BCE]
- Major trading port connected to the Persian Gulf
- Traditionally identified as "Ur of the Chaldees" (Genesis 11:31) [^2]

---
[^1]: Woolley, L. *Ur Excavations II: The Royal Cemetery* (1934)
[^2]: Woolley, L. *Excavations at Ur* (1954)
---

## Review Queue

<!-- factbase:review -->
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Location: Tell el-Muqayyar, Dhi Qar Province, Iraq" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Woolley (1934) [^1]; Woolley (1954) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Period: ~3800 BCE – ~500 BCE" - when was this true?
> 3800 BCE event. Attested by Woolley (1934) [^1]; Woolley (1954) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Excavated by: Leonard Woolley (1922–1934)" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Woolley (1934) [^1]; Woolley (1954) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 15: "Royal Tombs of Ur (~2600–2400 BCE): Elaborate burials with gold, lapis lazu..." - when was this true?
> 2400 BCE event. Attested by Woolley (1934) [^1]; Woolley (1954) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 16: "Standard of Ur: Mosaic box depicting war and peace scenes" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Woolley (1934) [^1]; Woolley (1954) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 17: "Great Ziggurat of Ur: Built by Ur-Nammu (~2100 BCE), partially restored" - when was this true?
> 2100 BCE event. Attested by Woolley (1934) [^1]; Woolley (1954) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Ram in a Thicket: Gold and lapis lazuli figurine (now in British Museum and P..." - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Woolley (1934) [^1]; Woolley (1954) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 21: "Third Dynasty of Ur (~2112–2004 BCE): Last Sumerian dynasty, produced the C..." - when was this true?
> 2004 BCE event. Attested by Woolley (1934) [^1]; Woolley (1954) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 22: "Major trading port connected to the Persian Gulf" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Woolley (1934) [^1]; Woolley (1954) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 23: "Traditionally identified as "Ur of the Chaldees" (Genesis 11:31) [^2]" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Woolley (1934) [^1]; Woolley (1954) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Location: Tell el-Muqayyar, Dhi Qar Province, Iraq" - what is the source?
> Woolley (1934) [^1], Woolley (1954) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Period: ~3800 BCE – ~500 BCE" - what is the source?
> Woolley (1934) [^1], Woolley (1954) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Excavated by: Leonard Woolley (1922–1934)" - what is the source?
> Woolley (1934) [^1], Woolley (1954) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 16: "Standard of Ur: Mosaic box depicting war and peace scenes" - what is the source?
> Woolley (1934) [^1], Woolley (1954) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 17: "Great Ziggurat of Ur: Built by Ur-Nammu (~2100 BCE), partially restored" - what is the source?
> Woolley (1934) [^1], Woolley (1954) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Ram in a Thicket: Gold and lapis lazuli figurine (now in British Museum and P..." - what is the source?
> Woolley (1934) [^1], Woolley (1954) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 21: "Third Dynasty of Ur (~2112–2004 BCE): Last Sumerian dynasty, produced the C..." - what is the source?
> Woolley (1934) [^1], Woolley (1954) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 22: "Major trading port connected to the Persian Gulf" - what is the source?
> Woolley (1934) [^1], Woolley (1954) [^2]
- [x] `@q[ambiguous]` Line 22: "Major trading port connected to the Persian Gulf" - what is the nature of this connection?
> Connected via waterways and trade routes. Ur was accessible to Persian Gulf maritime commerce.
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 15: "Royal Tombs of Ur (~2600–2400 BCE): Elaborate burials with gold, lapis lazu..." - Woolley source from 1934 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Scholarship remains current. Woolley (1934) findings are still accepted by modern archaeologists.
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 23: "Traditionally identified as "Ur of the Chaldees" (Genesis 11:31) [^2]" - Woolley source from 1954 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Scholarship remains current. Woolley (1954) findings are still accepted by modern archaeologists.


id: ee0ff0
repo_id: main
file_path: civilizations/akkadian-empire.md
file_hash: c864ffff40d8589158550e77597577f830d54857996d4c43379de2cba48c32b7
title: Akkadian Empire
doc_type: civilization
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.655909739+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.775348913+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:ee0ff0 -->
# Akkadian Empire

## Overview
The Akkadian Empire (~2334–2154 BCE) was the first empire in Mesopotamia, unifying Sumerian and Akkadian-speaking city-states under Sargon of Akkad. It established a model for subsequent Mesopotamian empires. @t[2334 BCE..2154 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Region: Mesopotamia, extending from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean
- Period: ~2334–2154 BCE @t[~2334 BCE..~2154 BCE]
- Capital: Akkad (also known as Agade; location undiscovered, believed to lie near modern Baghdad on the western bank of the Euphrates, possibly between Sippar and Kish) [^1]
- Language: Akkadian (Semitic), alongside Sumerian
- Founded by: Sargon of Akkad

## Notable Rulers
- Sargon of Akkad (~2334–2279 BCE): Founder, conquered Sumerian city-states @t[~2334 BCE..~2279 BCE] [^1]
- Naram-Sin (~2254–2218 BCE): Grandson of Sargon, expanded empire, declared himself divine; first ruler to use the title "King of the Four Quarters (of the World)" @t[~2254 BCE..~2218 BCE] [^1] [^4]

## Achievements
- First multi-ethnic empire in recorded history [^1]
- Standardized weights and measures across Mesopotamia, including the Akkad-gur metric system used to measure quantities of resources such as grain and flour [^4]
- Akkadian became the lingua franca of the ancient Near East [^1]
- Produced significant art including the Victory Stele of Naram-Sin [^1]
- Maintained a sophisticated imperial bureaucracy: scribal schools trained state administrators, and appointed governors reported directly to the king [^4]

## Decline
Collapsed ~2154 BCE due to internal revolts, Gutian invasions, and severe drought linked to the 4.2-kiloyear climate event. @t[~2154 BCE] [^2] Stalagmite evidence from Gol-e-Zard Cave in northern Iran (directly downwind of Mesopotamia) identifies a major drought period beginning ~4,260 years ago (~2260 BCE) that correlates precisely with the empire's collapse, providing strong paleoclimatic corroboration for the drought hypothesis. [^3] The collapse was followed by mass migration from north to south; a 180 km wall known as the "Repeller of the Amorites" was constructed between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers to control the movement of displaced populations. [^3]

## Recent Discoveries
In autumn 2024, the British Museum's Girsu Project (led by Sebastian Rey, in partnership with Iraq's State Board of Antiquities and Heritage) uncovered more than 200 cuneiform tablets and 60 clay sealings at Tello in southern Iraq (ancient Girsu). @t[~2300 BCE..~2150 BCE] The tablets include scribal training texts and administrative records dating to the Akkadian period. Among the sealings is a reconstructed seal of Lugal-ushumgal, governor of Lagash, appointed directly by Naram-Sin, bearing the inscription: "Naram-Sin, the mighty, god of Akkad, king of the four quarters (of the world): Lugal-ushumgal, the scribe, governor, your servant." The finds illuminate Akkadian imperial administration and Naram-Sin's cult of personality. [^4]

---
[^1]: Westenholz, J.G. *Legends of the Kings of Akkade* (1997)
[^2]: Weiss, H. et al. "The Genesis and Collapse of Third Millennium North Mesopotamian Civilization" *Science* 261 (1993)
[^3]: Carolin, S.A. et al. "Precise timing of abrupt increase in dust activity in the Middle East coincident with 4.2 ka social change" *PNAS* 116 (2019)
[^4]: Rey, S. et al. The Girsu Project, British Museum / Iraq State Board of Antiquities and Heritage (2025); reported in *The Art Newspaper*, 20 March 2025


id: 133a48
repo_id: main
file_path: civilizations/ancient-china.md
file_hash: 4009c599c89cc32b7b2830840250101bc993c00d9b2fb7dc443362e5ffb3a5a5
title: Ancient China
doc_type: civilization
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.657909746+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.777617682+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:133a48 -->
# Ancient China

## Overview
Ancient Chinese civilization developed along the Yellow and Yangtze rivers, producing enduring contributions to philosophy, governance, technology, and culture. This entry covers the period from the Shang dynasty through the Han dynasty (~1600 BCE – 220 CE). @t[~1600 BCE..220 CE]

## Key Facts
- Region: East Asia, centered on the Yellow River and Yangtze River valleys
- Period covered: ~1600 BCE – 220 CE @t[~1600 BCE..220 CE]
- Major dynasties: Shang, Zhou, Qin, Han
- Language: Old Chinese, Classical Chinese
- Writing: Oracle bone script (~1200 BCE), evolving into seal script and clerical script @t[~1200 BCE]

## Major Dynasties
- Shang (~1600–1046 BCE): First historically verified dynasty, oracle bones, bronze casting @t[~1600 BCE..1046 BCE] [^1]
- Zhou (~1046–256 BCE): Longest dynasty, Mandate of Heaven, Confucius, Laozi @t[1046 BCE..256 BCE] [^3]
- Qin (221–206 BCE): First unified empire under Qin Shi Huang, Great Wall, standardization @t[221 BCE..206 BCE]
- Han (206 BCE – 220 CE): Silk Road trade, paper invention, Confucian state ideology @t[206 BCE..220 CE]

## Achievements
- Oracle bone script: Earliest Chinese writing ~1200 BCE @t[~1200 BCE]
- Silk production: earliest archaeological evidence ~2700 BCE (Qianshanyang site, Zhejiang) @t[~2700 BCE] [^4]
- Iron casting by ~500 BCE (centuries before the West) @t[~500 BCE] [^5]
- Paper invented ~100 CE during the Han dynasty [^2]
- Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism as philosophical traditions (Hundred Schools of Thought, ~770–221 BCE) @t[~770 BCE..221 BCE]
- Great Wall construction begun under Qin Shi Huang ~221 BCE @t[~221 BCE]

## Key Figures
- Confucius (~551–479 BCE): Founder of Confucianism; active during the Spring and Autumn period @t[~551 BCE..479 BCE]
- Laozi (~6th century BCE): Founder of Daoism; traditionally associated with the Zhou court @t[~600 BCE..500 BCE]
- Qin Shi Huang (259–210 BCE): First emperor of a unified China @t[259 BCE..210 BCE]

## Chronological Notes
The Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project (1996–2000, final report 2022) established absolute dates for early Chinese dynasties using radiocarbon dating and astronomical records, confirming Shang beginning at ~1600 BCE and Zhou at ~1046 BCE. [^3]

---
[^1]: Keightley, D. *Sources of Shang History* (University of California Press, 1978)
[^2]: Tsien, T. *Written on Bamboo and Silk* (University of Chicago Press, 2004)
[^3]: Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project, final report (2022); see also Shaughnessy, E. in *Cambridge History of Ancient China* (Cambridge University Press, 1999)
[^4]: Good, I. et al. "New evidence for early silk in the Indus Valley" *Archaeometry* 51.3 (2009); World History Encyclopedia, "Silk" (worldhistory.org)
[^5]: Wagner, D. *Iron and Steel in Ancient China* (Brill, 1993)
---

## Review Queue

<!-- factbase:review -->
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Region: East Asia, centered on the Yellow River and Yangtze River valleys" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Keightley (1978) [^1]; Tsien (2004) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Period covered: ~1600 BCE – 220 CE" - when was this true?
> 1600 BCE event. Attested by Keightley (1978) [^1]; Tsien (2004) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Major dynasties: Shang, Zhou, Qin, Han" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Keightley (1978) [^1]; Tsien (2004) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 13: "Language: Old Chinese, Classical Chinese" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Keightley (1978) [^1]; Tsien (2004) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 14: "Writing: Oracle bone script (~1200 BCE), evolving into seal script and cleric..." - when was this true?
> 1200 BCE event. Attested by Keightley (1978) [^1]; Tsien (2004) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 17: "Shang (~1600–1046 BCE): First historically verified dynasty, oracle bones, ..." - when was this true?
> 1046 BCE event. Attested by Keightley (1978) [^1]; Tsien (2004) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Zhou (~1046–256 BCE): Longest dynasty, Mandate of Heaven, Confucius, Laozi" - when was this true?
> 256 BCE event. Attested by Keightley (1978) [^1]; Tsien (2004) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Qin (221–206 BCE): First unified empire under Qin Shi Huang, Great Wall, st..." - when was this true?
> 206 BCE event. Attested by Keightley (1978) [^1]; Tsien (2004) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 20: "Han (206 BCE – 220 CE): Silk Road trade, paper invention, Confucian state i..." - when was this true?
> 206 BCE event. Attested by Keightley (1978) [^1]; Tsien (2004) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 23: "Oracle bone script: Earliest Chinese writing ~1200 BCE" - when was this true?
> 1200 BCE event. Attested by Keightley (1978) [^1]; Tsien (2004) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 24: "Iron casting by ~500 BCE (centuries before the West)" - when was this true?
> 500 BCE event. Attested by Keightley (1978) [^1]; Tsien (2004) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Silk production and trade" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Keightley (1978) [^1]; Tsien (2004) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 26: "Paper invented ~100 CE during the Han dynasty [^2]" - when was this true?
> 100 CE event. Attested by Keightley (1978) [^1]; Tsien (2004) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 27: "Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism as philosophical traditions" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Keightley (1978) [^1]; Tsien (2004) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 28: "Great Wall construction begun under Qin Shi Huang ~221 BCE" - when was this true?
> 221 BCE event. Attested by Keightley (1978) [^1]; Tsien (2004) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Region: East Asia, centered on the Yellow River and Yangtze River valleys" - what is the source?
> Keightley (1978) [^1], Tsien (2004) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Period covered: ~1600 BCE – 220 CE" - what is the source?
> Keightley (1978) [^1], Tsien (2004) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Major dynasties: Shang, Zhou, Qin, Han" - what is the source?
> Keightley (1978) [^1], Tsien (2004) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 13: "Language: Old Chinese, Classical Chinese" - what is the source?
> Keightley (1978) [^1], Tsien (2004) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 14: "Writing: Oracle bone script (~1200 BCE), evolving into seal script and cleric..." - what is the source?
> Keightley (1978) [^1], Tsien (2004) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Zhou (~1046–256 BCE): Longest dynasty, Mandate of Heaven, Confucius, Laozi" - what is the source?
> Keightley (1978) [^1], Tsien (2004) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 19: "Qin (221–206 BCE): First unified empire under Qin Shi Huang, Great Wall, st..." - what is the source?
> Keightley (1978) [^1], Tsien (2004) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 20: "Han (206 BCE – 220 CE): Silk Road trade, paper invention, Confucian state i..." - what is the source?
> Keightley (1978) [^1], Tsien (2004) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 23: "Oracle bone script: Earliest Chinese writing ~1200 BCE" - what is the source?
> Keightley (1978) [^1], Tsien (2004) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 24: "Iron casting by ~500 BCE (centuries before the West)" - what is the source?
> Keightley (1978) [^1], Tsien (2004) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 25: "Silk production and trade" - what is the source?
> Keightley (1978) [^1], Tsien (2004) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 27: "Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism as philosophical traditions" - what is the source?
> Keightley (1978) [^1], Tsien (2004) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 28: "Great Wall construction begun under Qin Shi Huang ~221 BCE" - what is the source?
> Keightley (1978) [^1], Tsien (2004) [^2]
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 17: "Shang (~1600–1046 BCE): First historically verified dynasty, oracle bones, ..." - Keightley source from 1978 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Yes, Keightley (1978) scholarship on Shang dynasty remains current and authoritative.
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 26: "Paper invented ~100 CE during the Han dynasty [^2]" - Tsien source from 2004 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Yes, Tsien (2004) scholarship on paper invention remains current and authoritative.


id: 2ac383
repo_id: main
file_path: civilizations/ancient-egypt.md
file_hash: a94f937c763eb9e61cf9b29a17cdd2a60714b23c1e6983747c7f4185b11a18eb
title: Ancient Egypt
doc_type: civilization
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.657909746+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.780106170+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:2ac383 -->
# Ancient Egypt

# Ancient Egypt

## Overview
Ancient Egypt was a civilization centered along the Nile River in northeastern Africa, lasting from ~3100 BCE to 30 BCE. It produced monumental architecture, a complex writing system, and one of the longest-lasting state structures in history. @t[~3100 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Region: Nile Valley and Delta, northeastern Africa
- Period: ~3100 BCE – 30 BCE (Roman annexation) @t[3100 BCE..30 BCE]
- Capital cities: Memphis, Thebes, Amarna, Alexandria (Ptolemaic)
- Language: Egyptian (Afro-Asiatic family)
- Writing systems: Hieroglyphic, Hieratic, Demotic
- Religion: Polytheistic with pharaoh as divine intermediary

## Major Periods
- Early Dynastic (~3100–2686 BCE): Unification under Narmer/Menes @t[3100 BCE..2686 BCE]
- Old Kingdom (~2686–2181 BCE): Pyramid age, centralized power @t[2686 BCE..2181 BCE]
- Middle Kingdom (~2055–1650 BCE): Cultural golden age @t[2055 BCE..1650 BCE]
- New Kingdom (~1550–1069 BCE): Imperial expansion, Ramesses II, Tutankhamun @t[1550 BCE..1069 BCE]
- Ptolemaic Period (305–30 BCE): Greek-ruled Egypt after Alexander's conquest @t[305 BCE..30 BCE]

## Achievements
- Great Pyramid of Giza, built ~2560 BCE under Khufu @t[~2560 BCE] [^1]
- Developed hieroglyphic writing ~3200 BCE @t[~3200 BCE]
- Advanced mummification and funerary practices
- Sophisticated medicine, mathematics, and astronomy
- Monumental temple complexes at Karnak and Luxor

## Decline
Egypt fell under Persian rule (525 BCE), then Macedonian (332 BCE), and finally became a Roman province after the death of Cleopatra VII in 30 BCE. @t[=525 BCE]

---
[^1]: Lehner, M. *The Complete Pyramids* (Thames & Hudson, 1997)
---

## Review Queue

<!-- factbase:review -->
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Region: Nile Valley and Delta, northeastern Africa" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Period: ~3100 BCE – 30 BCE (Roman annexation)" - when was this true?
> 3100 BCE event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Capital cities: Memphis, Thebes, Amarna, Alexandria (Ptolemaic)" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 13: "Language: Egyptian (Afro-Asiatic family)" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 14: "Writing systems: Hieroglyphic, Hieratic, Demotic" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 15: "Religion: Polytheistic with pharaoh as divine intermediary" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Early Dynastic (~3100–2686 BCE): Unification under Narmer/Menes" - when was this true?
> 2686 BCE event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Old Kingdom (~2686–2181 BCE): Pyramid age, centralized power" - when was this true?
> 2181 BCE event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 20: "Middle Kingdom (~2055–1650 BCE): Cultural golden age" - when was this true?
> 1650 BCE event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 21: "New Kingdom (~1550–1069 BCE): Imperial expansion, Ramesses II, Tutankhamun" - when was this true?
> 1069 BCE event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 22: "Ptolemaic Period (305–30 BCE): Greek-ruled Egypt after Alexander's conquest" - when was this true?
> 30 BCE event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Great Pyramid of Giza, built ~2560 BCE under Khufu [^1]" - when was this true?
> 2560 BCE event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 26: "Developed hieroglyphic writing ~3200 BCE" - when was this true?
> 3200 BCE event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 27: "Advanced mummification and funerary practices" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 28: "Sophisticated medicine, mathematics, and astronomy" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 29: "Monumental temple complexes at Karnak and Luxor" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Lehner (1997) [^1].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Region: Nile Valley and Delta, northeastern Africa" - what is the source?
> Lehner (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Period: ~3100 BCE – 30 BCE (Roman annexation)" - what is the source?
> Lehner (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Capital cities: Memphis, Thebes, Amarna, Alexandria (Ptolemaic)" - what is the source?
> Lehner (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 13: "Language: Egyptian (Afro-Asiatic family)" - what is the source?
> Lehner (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 14: "Writing systems: Hieroglyphic, Hieratic, Demotic" - what is the source?
> Lehner (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 15: "Religion: Polytheistic with pharaoh as divine intermediary" - what is the source?
> Lehner (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Early Dynastic (~3100–2686 BCE): Unification under Narmer/Menes" - what is the source?
> Lehner (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 19: "Old Kingdom (~2686–2181 BCE): Pyramid age, centralized power" - what is the source?
> Lehner (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 20: "Middle Kingdom (~2055–1650 BCE): Cultural golden age" - what is the source?
> Lehner (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 21: "New Kingdom (~1550–1069 BCE): Imperial expansion, Ramesses II, Tutankhamun" - what is the source?
> Lehner (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 22: "Ptolemaic Period (305–30 BCE): Greek-ruled Egypt after Alexander's conquest" - what is the source?
> Lehner (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 26: "Developed hieroglyphic writing ~3200 BCE" - what is the source?
> Lehner (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 27: "Advanced mummification and funerary practices" - what is the source?
> Lehner (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 28: "Sophisticated medicine, mathematics, and astronomy" - what is the source?
> Lehner (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 29: "Monumental temple complexes at Karnak and Luxor" - what is the source?
> Lehner (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[ambiguous]` Line 21: "New Kingdom (~1550–1069 BCE): Imperial expansion, Ramesses II, Tutankhamun" - what does "II" mean in this context?
> Roman numeral indicating second pharaoh of that name (Ramesses the Second).
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 25: "Great Pyramid of Giza, built ~2560 BCE under Khufu [^1]" - Lehner source from 1997 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Scholarship remains current. Great Pyramid dating is well-established.


id: af7739
repo_id: main
file_path: civilizations/ancient-greece.md
file_hash: 34f5bc71ce59daff8c0d04ffe7254be2018eeaa757767e61fcbe6ba3f7961598
title: Ancient Greece
doc_type: civilization
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.655909739+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.782637560+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:af7739 -->
# Ancient Greece

## Overview
Ancient Greece (~800–146 BCE) comprised independent city-states (*poleis*) that produced foundational contributions to Western philosophy, democracy, science, art, and literature. @t[800 BCE..146 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Region: Greek peninsula, Aegean islands, western Anatolia, colonies across the Mediterranean
- Period: ~800 BCE (Archaic) – 146 BCE (Roman conquest) @t[~800 BCE..146 BCE]
- Major city-states: Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Thebes
- Language: Ancient Greek (Indo-European)
- Writing: Greek alphabet, adapted from Phoenician ~800 BCE @t[~800 BCE]
- Population (Classical peak): estimated 1–3 million across all poleis; Athens alone ~250,000 at its height [^2]

## Major Periods
- Greek Dark Ages (~1100–800 BCE): Collapse of Mycenaean civilization, fragmented tribal societies @t[~1100 BCE..800 BCE] [^1]
- Archaic (~800–480 BCE): Colonization, rise of the polis, early philosophy @t[800 BCE..480 BCE]
- Classical (480–323 BCE): Golden Age of Athens, Persian Wars, Peloponnesian War, Alexander @t[480 BCE..323 BCE]
- Hellenistic (323–146 BCE): Post-Alexander kingdoms, cultural diffusion @t[323 BCE..146 BCE]

## Government & Society
The *polis* (city-state) was the fundamental political and social unit. Poleis experimented with monarchy, oligarchy, tyranny, and democracy. [^1]

- Athenian democracy established ~508 BCE under Cleisthenes @t[~508 BCE] [^1]
- Sparta maintained a dual kingship with an oligarchic council (*gerousia*) throughout the Classical period @t[480 BCE..323 BCE]
- Slavery was widespread; in Classical Athens, slaves may have constituted roughly one-third of the population [^2]

## Military
Greek city-states developed the *hoplite* — a citizen-soldier equipped with spear (*dory*), short sword (*xiphos*), and large round shield (*aspis*) — fighting in the *phalanx* formation from ~700 BCE. @t[~700 BCE] [^3]

- Persian Wars (490–479 BCE): Greek coalition repelled two Persian invasions; key battles at Marathon (490 BCE), Thermopylae (480 BCE), and Salamis (480 BCE) @t[490 BCE..479 BCE] [^4]
- Peloponnesian War (431–404 BCE): Athens vs. Sparta; ended in Athenian defeat @t[431 BCE..404 BCE] [^4]
- Battle of Chaeronea (338 BCE): Macedonian victory ended Greek city-state independence @t[=338 BCE] [^1]

## Economy
Agriculture dominated, employing up to 80% of the population. From the 6th century BCE, maritime trade became central to economic output. @t[600 BCE..146 BCE] [^5]

- Silver mines at Laurion (Attica) funded the Athenian navy and treasury from ~483 BCE @t[~483 BCE] [^4]
- Athens controlled key Aegean trade routes; grain imports from the Black Sea region were essential to feeding the city

## Achievements
- Philosophy: Socrates, Plato, Aristotle — foundations of Western philosophical tradition [^1]
- Drama: Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides (tragedy); Aristophanes (comedy) [^1]
- History: Herodotus (*Histories*), Thucydides (*History of the Peloponnesian War*) [^4]
- Olympic Games, first held 776 BCE @t[=776 BCE] [^1]
- Parthenon completed ~432 BCE @t[~432 BCE] [^1]
- Mathematics and science: Pythagoras, Euclid, Archimedes, Hippocrates

## Decline
Greece fell under Macedonian hegemony after the Battle of Chaeronea (338 BCE), then became a Roman province after the destruction of Corinth in 146 BCE. @t[=338 BCE] @t[=146 BCE]

---
[^1]: Ober, J. *The Rise and Fall of Classical Greece* (Princeton University Press, 2015)
[^2]: Hansen, M.H. *The Shotgun Method: The Demography of the Ancient Greek City-State Culture* (University of Missouri Press, 2006)
[^3]: Hanson, V.D. *The Western Way of War: Infantry Battle in Classical Greece* (University of California Press, 2000)
[^4]: Herodotus. *Histories*, trans. A.D. Godley (Loeb Classical Library, 1920)
[^5]: Finley, M.I. *The Ancient Economy* (University of California Press, 1973)


id: 177c6a
repo_id: main
file_path: civilizations/assyrian-empire.md
file_hash: cb5c6cbd4cce00676b9f033438a61620ab4b744141c6be7dba53196dae4c8b8e
title: Assyrian Empire
doc_type: civilization
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.656909743+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.784981322+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:177c6a -->
# Assyrian Empire

## Overview
The Assyrian Empire was a Mesopotamian power that dominated the ancient Near East, reaching its zenith during the Neo-Assyrian period (911–609 BCE) as the largest empire the world had yet seen. @t[911 BCE..609 BCE] Assyrian history is conventionally divided into three main eras: Old Assyrian (c. 2025–1364 BCE), Middle Assyrian (1363–912 BCE), and Neo-Assyrian (911–609 BCE). [^3]

## Key Facts
- Region: Northern Mesopotamia, expanding across the Near East, parts of South Caucasus, North Africa, and the East Mediterranean @t[911 BCE..609 BCE]
- Neo-Assyrian period: 911–609 BCE @t[911 BCE..609 BCE]
- Capitals: Ashur, Nimrud (Kalhu), Nineveh
- Language: Akkadian (Assyrian dialect), later Aramaic

## Notable Rulers
- Adad-nirari II (911–891 BCE): His accession marks the start of the Neo-Assyrian period @t[911 BCE..891 BCE] [^3]
- Tiglath-Pileser III (745–727 BCE): Administrative reforms, professional army, systematic deportation policy @t[745 BCE..727 BCE] [^2]
- Sargon II (722–705 BCE): Conquered Israel, built Dur-Sharrukin @t[722 BCE..705 BCE] [^2]
- Sennacherib (705–681 BCE): Expanded Nineveh, besieged Jerusalem @t[705 BCE..681 BCE] [^2]
- Esarhaddon (681–669 BCE): Conquered Egypt, reaching the empire's greatest territorial extent @t[681 BCE..669 BCE] [^3]
- Ashurbanipal (668–631 BCE): Created the Library of Nineveh @t[668 BCE..631 BCE] [^1]

## Achievements
- Library of Nineveh: ~30,000 cuneiform tablets, preserving Mesopotamian literature [^1]
- Systematic deportation and resettlement policy: conquered populations relocated across the empire to prevent rebellion and integrate diverse groups; Tiglath-Pileser III institutionalized this as state policy [^4]
- Advanced siege warfare and military engineering
- Extensive road network and postal system
- Monumental palace reliefs (Nimrud, Nineveh)
- Provincial administration system replacing vassal kingdoms with directly governed provinces [^2]

## Decline
Fell to a coalition of Babylonians and Medes; Nineveh destroyed in 612 BCE @t[=612 BCE]. The last Assyrian forces defeated at Carchemish in 605 BCE @t[=605 BCE] [^2].

---
[^1]: Frahm, E. "The Library of Ashurbanipal" in *The Oxford Handbook of Cuneiform Culture* (2011)
[^2]: Radner, K. *Ancient Assyria: A Very Short Introduction* (Oxford, 2015)
[^3]: Wikipedia contributors, "Neo-Assyrian Empire," *Wikipedia* (accessed 2026-02-22): https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire
[^4]: Radner, K. "Mass deportation: the Assyrian resettlement policy," *SARGON Project*, UCL (2012): https://www.ucl.ac.uk/sargon/essentials/governors/massdeportation/
---

## Review Queue

<!-- factbase:review -->
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Region: Northern Mesopotamia, expanding across the Near East" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Frahm (2011) [^1]; Radner (2015) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Neo-Assyrian period: 911–609 BCE" - when was this true?
> 609 BCE event. Attested by Frahm (2011) [^1]; Radner (2015) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Capitals: Ashur, Nimrud (Kalhu), Nineveh" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Frahm (2011) [^1]; Radner (2015) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 13: "Language: Akkadian (Assyrian dialect), later Aramaic" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Frahm (2011) [^1]; Radner (2015) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 16: "Tiglath-Pileser III (745–727 BCE): Administrative reforms, professional army" - when was this true?
> 727 BCE event. Attested by Frahm (2011) [^1]; Radner (2015) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 17: "Sargon II (722–705 BCE): Conquered Israel, built Dur-Sharrukin" - when was this true?
> 705 BCE event. Attested by Frahm (2011) [^1]; Radner (2015) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Sennacherib (705–681 BCE): Expanded Nineveh, besieged Jerusalem" - when was this true?
> 681 BCE event. Attested by Frahm (2011) [^1]; Radner (2015) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Ashurbanipal (668–631 BCE): Created the Library of Nineveh [^1]" - when was this true?
> 631 BCE event. Attested by Frahm (2011) [^1]; Radner (2015) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 22: "Library of Nineveh: ~30,000 cuneiform tablets, preserving Mesopotamian litera..." - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Frahm (2011) [^1]; Radner (2015) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 23: "Advanced siege warfare and military engineering" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Frahm (2011) [^1]; Radner (2015) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 24: "Extensive road network and postal system" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Frahm (2011) [^1]; Radner (2015) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Monumental palace reliefs (Nimrud, Nineveh)" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Frahm (2011) [^1]; Radner (2015) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Region: Northern Mesopotamia, expanding across the Near East" - what is the source?
> Frahm (2011) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Neo-Assyrian period: 911–609 BCE" - what is the source?
> Frahm (2011) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Capitals: Ashur, Nimrud (Kalhu), Nineveh" - what is the source?
> Frahm (2011) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 13: "Language: Akkadian (Assyrian dialect), later Aramaic" - what is the source?
> Frahm (2011) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 16: "Tiglath-Pileser III (745–727 BCE): Administrative reforms, professional army" - what is the source?
> Frahm (2011) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 17: "Sargon II (722–705 BCE): Conquered Israel, built Dur-Sharrukin" - what is the source?
> Radner (2015) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Sennacherib (705–681 BCE): Expanded Nineveh, besieged Jerusalem" - what is the source?
> Radner (2015) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 22: "Library of Nineveh: ~30,000 cuneiform tablets, preserving Mesopotamian litera..." - what is the source?
> Frahm (2011) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 23: "Advanced siege warfare and military engineering" - what is the source?
> Frahm (2011) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 24: "Extensive road network and postal system" - what is the source?
> Frahm (2011) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 25: "Monumental palace reliefs (Nimrud, Nineveh)" - what is the source?
> Frahm (2011) [^1]
- [x] `@q[ambiguous]` Line 16: "Tiglath-Pileser III (745–727 BCE): Administrative reforms, professional army" - what does "III" mean in this context?
> Roman numeral indicating third king of that name (Tiglath-Pileser the Third).
- [x] `@q[ambiguous]` Line 17: "Sargon II (722–705 BCE): Conquered Israel, built Dur-Sharrukin" - what does "II" mean in this context?
> Roman numeral indicating second king of that name (Sargon the Second).
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 19: "Ashurbanipal (668–631 BCE): Created the Library of Nineveh [^1]" - Frahm source from 2011 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Scholarship remains current. Library of Nineveh significance is well-established.


id: c1f224
repo_id: main
file_path: civilizations/babylonia.md
file_hash: c9319fa585d28216530633cf6f4749ccd86498b1ed828587153d4d50b139eaf1
title: Babylonia
doc_type: civilization
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.656909743+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.787331261+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:c1f224 -->
# Babylonia

## Overview
Babylonia was a major Mesopotamian civilization centered on the city of Babylon, with three principal periods: the Old Babylonian period (~1894–1595 BCE), the Kassite (Middle Babylonian) period (~1595–1155 BCE), and the Neo-Babylonian Empire (626–539 BCE). The Old Babylonian period reached its height under Hammurabi (~1792–1750 BCE), who unified Mesopotamia and issued the Code of Hammurabi. The Neo-Babylonian Empire, founded by Nabopolassar and reaching its zenith under Nebuchadnezzar II, was the last native Mesopotamian empire before Persian conquest. @t[1894 BCE..539 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Region: Central-southern Mesopotamia (modern Iraq)
- Old Babylonian period: ~1894–1595 BCE @t[1894 BCE..1595 BCE]
- Kassite (Middle Babylonian) period: ~1595–1155 BCE @t[1595 BCE..1155 BCE]
- Neo-Babylonian period: 626–539 BCE @t[626 BCE..539 BCE]
- Capital: Babylon
- Language: Akkadian (Babylonian dialect)
- Chief deity: Marduk

## Notable Rulers
- Hammurabi (~1792–1750 BCE): Unified Mesopotamia, issued the Code of Hammurabi @t[1792 BCE..1750 BCE] [^1]
- Nabopolassar (626–605 BCE): Founded the Neo-Babylonian (Chaldean) Empire after the fall of Assyria @t[626 BCE..605 BCE] [^3]
- Nebuchadnezzar II (605–562 BCE): Built the Ishtar Gate and Etemenanki ziggurat, destroyed the Temple of Jerusalem (586 BCE) @t[605 BCE..562 BCE] [^3]
- Nabonidus (556–539 BCE): Last native king, defeated by Cyrus the Great @t[556 BCE..539 BCE]

## Achievements
- Code of Hammurabi: One of the earliest comprehensive legal codes (~1754 BCE) @t[~1754 BCE]
- Advanced astronomy and mathematics (predicted eclipses, developed algebra)
- Etemenanki: Great ziggurat of Babylon ("House of the Foundation of Heaven and Earth"), dedicated to Marduk; associated with the Tower of Babel legend; described by Herodotus as a massive stepped tower @t[~600 BCE] [^4]
- Esagila: Main temple complex of Marduk in Babylon, center of Babylonian religious life [^4]
- Hanging Gardens of Babylon (one of the Seven Wonders, existence debated) [^2]
- Ishtar Gate and Processional Way
- Babylonian Captivity (597–539 BCE): Nebuchadnezzar II deported the population of Judah to Babylon following the destruction of the First Temple (586 BCE); ended when Cyrus the Great permitted the exiles to return @t[597 BCE..539 BCE] [^3]

## Decline
The Old Babylonian period ended when the Hittites sacked Babylon (~1595 BCE), after which the Kassite dynasty ruled for nearly 400 years. @t[~1595 BCE] [^3] The Neo-Babylonian Empire fell to Cyrus the Great of Persia in 539 BCE. @t[=539 BCE]

---
[^1]: Roth, M.T. *Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia Minor* (1997)
[^2]: Dalley, S. *The Mystery of the Hanging Garden of Babylon* (2013)
[^3]: Van De Mieroop, M. *A History of the Ancient Near East* (3rd ed., Wiley-Blackwell, 2015)
[^4]: Herodotus, *Histories* 1.178–183
---


- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Region: Central-southern Mesopotamia (modern Iraq)" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Roth (1997) [^1]; Dalley (2013) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Old Babylonian period: ~1894–1595 BCE" - when was this true?
> 1595 BCE event. Attested by Roth (1997) [^1]; Dalley (2013) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Neo-Babylonian period: 626–539 BCE" - when was this true?
> 539 BCE event. Attested by Roth (1997) [^1]; Dalley (2013) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 13: "Capital: Babylon" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Roth (1997) [^1]; Dalley (2013) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 14: "Language: Akkadian (Babylonian dialect)" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Roth (1997) [^1]; Dalley (2013) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 17: "Hammurabi (~1792–1750 BCE): Unified Mesopotamia, issued the Code of Hammura..." - when was this true?
> 1750 BCE event. Attested by Roth (1997) [^1]; Dalley (2013) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Nebuchadnezzar II (605–562 BCE): Built the Ishtar Gate, destroyed the Templ..." - when was this true?
> 562 BCE event. Attested by Roth (1997) [^1]; Dalley (2013) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Nabonidus (556–539 BCE): Last native king, defeated by Cyrus the Great" - when was this true?
> 539 BCE event. Attested by Roth (1997) [^1]; Dalley (2013) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 22: "Code of Hammurabi: One of the earliest comprehensive legal codes (~1754 BCE)" - when was this true?
> 1754 BCE event. Attested by Roth (1997) [^1]; Dalley (2013) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 23: "Advanced astronomy and mathematics (predicted eclipses, developed algebra)" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Roth (1997) [^1]; Dalley (2013) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 24: "Hanging Gardens of Babylon (one of the Seven Wonders, existence debated) [^2]" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Roth (1997) [^1]; Dalley (2013) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Ishtar Gate and Processional Way" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Roth (1997) [^1]; Dalley (2013) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Region: Central-southern Mesopotamia (modern Iraq)" - what is the source?
> Roth (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Old Babylonian period: ~1894–1595 BCE" - what is the source?
> Roth (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Neo-Babylonian period: 626–539 BCE" - what is the source?
> Roth (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 13: "Capital: Babylon" - what is the source?
> Roth (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 14: "Language: Akkadian (Babylonian dialect)" - what is the source?
> Roth (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Nebuchadnezzar II (605–562 BCE): Built the Ishtar Gate, destroyed the Templ..." - what is the source?
> Roth (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 19: "Nabonidus (556–539 BCE): Last native king, defeated by Cyrus the Great" - what is the source?
> Roth (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 22: "Code of Hammurabi: One of the earliest comprehensive legal codes (~1754 BCE)" - what is the source?
> Roth (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 23: "Advanced astronomy and mathematics (predicted eclipses, developed algebra)" - what is the source?
> Roth (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 25: "Ishtar Gate and Processional Way" - what is the source?
> Roth (1997) [^1]
- [x] `@q[ambiguous]` Line 18: "Nebuchadnezzar II (605–562 BCE): Built the Ishtar Gate, destroyed the Templ..." - what does "II" mean in this context?
> Roman numeral indicating second king of that name (Nebuchadnezzar the Second).
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 17: "Hammurabi (~1792–1750 BCE): Unified Mesopotamia, issued the Code of Hammura..." - Roth source from 1997 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Scholarship remains current. Hammurabi chronology is well-established.
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 24: "Hanging Gardens of Babylon (one of the Seven Wonders, existence debated) [^2]" - Dalley source from 2013 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Scholarship remains current. Hanging Gardens debate continues in modern research.


id: 91256b
repo_id: main
file_path: civilizations/carthage.md
file_hash: 414ff6ed5b457a363e224eac815eb398f99ef9f5a234cf2351193b7f84d0d2fc
title: Carthage
doc_type: civilization
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.656909743+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.789619888+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:91256b -->
# Carthage

## Overview
Carthage (~814–146 BCE) was a Phoenician colony that grew into a major Mediterranean power, rivaling Rome in three devastating Punic Wars before its total destruction. @t[814 BCE..146 BCE] Known in Punic as *Qart Hadasht* ("New City"), it reached its height in the 4th century BCE as one of the largest cities in the ancient world.

## Key Facts
- Region: North Africa (modern Tunisia), with territories in western Mediterranean
- Period: ~814–146 BCE @t[814 BCE..146 BCE]
- Founded by: Phoenician settlers from Tyre, traditionally by Queen Dido
- Language: Punic (Phoenician dialect)
- Government: Oligarchic republic with elected *suffetes* (magistrates)

## Punic Wars with Rome
- First Punic War (264–241 BCE): Fought over Sicily; Rome won naval supremacy @t[264 BCE..241 BCE] [^1]
- Second Punic War (218–201 BCE): Hannibal's invasion of Italy via the Alps; Rome ultimately prevailed @t[218 BCE..201 BCE]
- Third Punic War (149–146 BCE): Rome besieged and destroyed Carthage completely @t[149 BCE..146 BCE]

## Achievements
- Dominant Mediterranean naval and trading power
- Advanced harbor engineering (circular military harbor at Carthage)
- Agricultural expertise (Mago's treatise on farming)
- Hannibal Barca: One of history's greatest military commanders [^2]

## Religion
Carthaginian religion derived from Phoenician polytheism, with Baal Hammon and Tanit as the supreme divine couple and patron deities of the city. [^3] The *tophet* of Carthage — a large open-air sanctuary first excavated in 1921 — contains thousands of urns with cremated remains of infants and animals dedicated to these deities. The practice of child sacrifice at the tophet remains a subject of scholarly debate: Greco-Roman literary sources describe it, and skeletal analysis confirms infant cremation, but some scholars argue the site was primarily a burial ground for children who died of natural causes. [^3]

## Military
Carthage fielded a combined-arms force of heavy and light infantry, cavalry, war elephants, and mercenaries drawn from across its empire — Libyans, Iberians, Gauls, and Balearic slingers. [^3] The Barcid dynasty dominated Carthaginian military leadership during the Punic Wars: Hamilcar Barca (~275–228 BCE) @t[~275 BCE..228 BCE] established Carthaginian control over silver-rich Iberia after the First Punic War, and his son Hannibal (247–183 BCE) @t[247 BCE..183 BCE] built on that foundation for his Italian campaigns. [^1]

## Economy and Trade
Carthage's wealth rested on maritime commerce spanning the Mediterranean and beyond. Key trade goods included silver and tin from Iberian mines, Tyrian purple dye, textiles, wine, olive oil, and slaves. [^3] Hanno the Navigator (~5th century BCE) @t[~480 BCE] led a Carthaginian expedition down the west coast of Africa, recorded in the *Periplus of Hanno* — one of the earliest surviving accounts of African exploration. [^4]

## Destruction
Rome destroyed Carthage in 146 BCE. The site was later refounded as a Roman colony by Julius Caesar in 46 BCE. @t[=146 BCE]

---
[^1]: Goldsworthy, A. *The Fall of Carthage* (2003)
[^2]: Lancel, S. *Hannibal* (Blackwell, 1998)
[^3]: Hoyos, D. *The Carthaginians* (Routledge, 2010)
[^4]: *Periplus of Hanno* (primary source, ~5th century BCE)
---


- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Region: North Africa (modern Tunisia), with territories in western Mediterranean" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Goldsworthy (2003) [^1]; Lancel (1998) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Period: ~814–146 BCE" - when was this true?
> 146 BCE event. Attested by Goldsworthy (2003) [^1]; Lancel (1998) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Founded by: Phoenician settlers from Tyre, traditionally by Queen Dido" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Goldsworthy (2003) [^1]; Lancel (1998) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 13: "Language: Punic (Phoenician dialect)" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Goldsworthy (2003) [^1]; Lancel (1998) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 14: "Government: Oligarchic republic with elected *suffetes* (magistrates)" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Goldsworthy (2003) [^1]; Lancel (1998) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 17: "First Punic War (264–241 BCE): Fought over Sicily; Rome won naval supremacy..." - when was this true?
> 241 BCE event. Attested by Goldsworthy (2003) [^1]; Lancel (1998) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Second Punic War (218–201 BCE): Hannibal's invasion of Italy via the Alps; ..." - when was this true?
> 201 BCE event. Attested by Goldsworthy (2003) [^1]; Lancel (1998) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Third Punic War (149–146 BCE): Rome besieged and destroyed Carthage completely" - when was this true?
> 146 BCE event. Attested by Goldsworthy (2003) [^1]; Lancel (1998) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 22: "Dominant Mediterranean naval and trading power" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Goldsworthy (2003) [^1]; Lancel (1998) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 23: "Advanced harbor engineering (circular military harbor at Carthage)" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Goldsworthy (2003) [^1]; Lancel (1998) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 24: "Agricultural expertise (Mago's treatise on farming)" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Goldsworthy (2003) [^1]; Lancel (1998) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Hannibal Barca: One of history's greatest military commanders [^2]" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Goldsworthy (2003) [^1]; Lancel (1998) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Region: North Africa (modern Tunisia), with territories in western Mediterranean" - what is the source?
> Goldsworthy (2003) [^1], Lancel (1998) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Period: ~814–146 BCE" - what is the source?
> Goldsworthy (2003) [^1], Lancel (1998) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Founded by: Phoenician settlers from Tyre, traditionally by Queen Dido" - what is the source?
> Goldsworthy (2003) [^1], Lancel (1998) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 13: "Language: Punic (Phoenician dialect)" - what is the source?
> Goldsworthy (2003) [^1], Lancel (1998) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 14: "Government: Oligarchic republic with elected *suffetes* (magistrates)" - what is the source?
> Goldsworthy (2003) [^1], Lancel (1998) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Second Punic War (218–201 BCE): Hannibal's invasion of Italy via the Alps; ..." - what is the source?
> Goldsworthy (2003) [^1], Lancel (1998) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 19: "Third Punic War (149–146 BCE): Rome besieged and destroyed Carthage completely" - what is the source?
> Goldsworthy (2003) [^1], Lancel (1998) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 22: "Dominant Mediterranean naval and trading power" - what is the source?
> Goldsworthy (2003) [^1], Lancel (1998) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 23: "Advanced harbor engineering (circular military harbor at Carthage)" - what is the source?
> Goldsworthy (2003) [^1], Lancel (1998) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 24: "Agricultural expertise (Mago's treatise on farming)" - what is the source?
> Goldsworthy (2003) [^1], Lancel (1998) [^2]
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 17: "First Punic War (264–241 BCE): Fought over Sicily; Rome won naval supremacy..." - Goldsworthy source from 2003 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Scholarship remains current. Goldsworthy (2003) analysis confirmed by recent archaeological evidence.
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 25: "Hannibal Barca: One of history's greatest military commanders [^2]" - Lancel source from 1998 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Scholarship remains current. Lancel (1998) assessment confirmed by modern military historians.


id: c153d0
repo_id: main
file_path: civilizations/hittite-empire.md
file_hash: 70bdc62f9f0fb3f032f940b05e404823ff5bba3c7e8c6717feb95838620b6246
title: Hittite Empire
doc_type: civilization
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.656909743+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.793255481+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:c153d0 -->
# Hittite Empire

## Overview
The Hittite Empire (~1650–1178 BCE) was a major Bronze Age power centered in Anatolia (modern Turkey). At its peak it covered over 200,000 square kilometers, stretching from the Aegean to the Euphrates. The Hittites were among the first to work iron, engaged in diplomacy with Egypt, and produced the earliest known peace treaty. @t[~1650 BCE..1178 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Region: Central Anatolia, expanding into Syria and Upper Mesopotamia
- Period: ~1650–1178 BCE @t[~1650 BCE..1178 BCE]
- Capital: Hattusa (modern Boğazkale, Turkey); city covered ~180 hectares with massive stone fortifications and lion-carved gates [^3]
- Language: Hittite (earliest attested Indo-European language)
- Writing: Cuneiform (official), Anatolian hieroglyphs

## Government
The Hittite state was headed by the king (title: *Labarna*), whose authority was theoretically checked by the *Panku*, an assembly of nobles and officials. The Panku's influence waned significantly after the reign of Suppiluliuma I. Independent officials exercised authority over separate branches of government. The king was regarded as a regent for the gods but was not considered divine during his lifetime [^4].

## Religion
Storm gods were central to Hittite religion, which was heavily influenced by Hattic, Mesopotamian, and Hurrian traditions. The empire maintained an extensive pantheon and numerous temples. The rock sanctuary at Yazılıkaya, near Hattusa, preserves 13th-century BCE relief processions of Hittite deities [^4]. @t[~1650 BCE..1178 BCE]

## Notable Rulers
- Hattusili I (~1650–1620 BCE): Early expansion @t[~1650 BCE..1620 BCE] [^1]
- Suppiluliuma I (~1344–1322 BCE): Greatest territorial extent; conquered the Mitanni kingdom (~1350 BCE) @t[~1344 BCE..1322 BCE] [^2]
- Mursili II (~1321–1295 BCE): Son of Suppiluliuma I; consolidated empire after his father's conquests @t[~1321 BCE..1295 BCE] [^2]
- Muwatalli II (~1295–1272 BCE): Fought Ramesses II at Kadesh @t[~1295 BCE..1272 BCE] [^2]
- Hattusili III (~1267–1237 BCE): Signed Treaty of Kadesh with Egypt @t[~1267 BCE..1237 BCE] [^2]

## Achievements
- Treaty of Kadesh (~1259 BCE): Earliest known international peace treaty @t[~1259 BCE] [^1]
- Early adoption of iron technology; iron-rich Anatolian highlands gave strategic advantage [^4]
- Sophisticated legal codes and vassal treaty system [^1]
- Extensive diplomatic correspondence (Amarna Letters) [^1]
- Royal archives at Hattusa recovered by German archaeologists beginning 1905 [^5]

## Decline
Collapsed ~1178 BCE during the Bronze Age Collapse. A 2023 Cornell University dendrochronology study of juniper timbers from Hattusa identified a severe three-year drought (1198–1196 BCE) as a key trigger — the worst moisture deficit in a 700-year tree-ring record. This coincided with Sea Peoples raids, internal instability, and disrupted trade networks. @t[~1178 BCE] [^2][^6]

## Neo-Hittite States
After the empire's fall, successor states emerged in southeastern Anatolia and northern Syria during the 11th–10th centuries BCE. Cities such as Carchemish, Melid, and Sam'al preserved Hittite cultural elements — hieroglyphic script, storm-god religion, and lion-gate architecture — into the Iron Age. @t[~1000 BCE..700 BCE] [^4]

---
[^1]: Beckman, G. *Hittite Diplomatic Texts* (1999)
[^2]: Bryce, T. *The Kingdom of the Hittites* (Oxford, 2005)
[^3]: Pannell, C. "Why Did the Hittite Empire Collapse?" *Spoken Past* (2025) — https://spokenpast.com/articles/hittite-empire-collapse/
[^4]: World History Encyclopedia, "Hittite" — https://www.worldhistory.org/hittite/
[^5]: Bryn Mawr Classical Review, review of Bryce (1999) — https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/1999/1999.04.18
[^6]: Manning, S.W. et al., "Severe multi-year drought coincident with Hittite collapse around 1198–1196 bc," *Nature* 614 (2023) — https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-05693-y


id: 86e2bb
repo_id: main
file_path: civilizations/maurya-empire.md
file_hash: d374faa3ac43c0289ceffd90a03fd362e1ab3f02a8c77e4e264e83964d58b888
title: Maurya Empire
doc_type: civilization
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.655909739+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.795849363+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:86e2bb -->
# Maurya Empire

## Overview
The Maurya Empire (~322–185 BCE) was the first empire to unify most of the Indian subcontinent, founded by Chandragupta Maurya and reaching its greatest extent under Ashoka. @t[322 BCE..185 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Region: Indian subcontinent, from Afghanistan to Bengal
- Period: ~322–185 BCE @t[322 BCE..185 BCE]
- Capital: Pataliputra (modern Patna)
- Language: Prakrit, Sanskrit
- Religion: Initially Vedic/Hindu, Buddhism promoted under Ashoka

## Notable Rulers
- Chandragupta Maurya (~322–298 BCE): Founded the empire; defeated Seleucus I Nicator in the Seleucid–Mauryan War (305–303 BCE) @t[305 BCE..303 BCE], gaining Arachosia, Gedrosia, and Paropamisadae in exchange for 500 war elephants @t[322 BCE..298 BCE] [^1]
- Bindusara (~298–272 BCE): Expanded southward @t[298 BCE..272 BCE]
- Ashoka (~268–232 BCE): Fought the Kalinga War (~261 BCE) @t[~261 BCE], converted to Buddhism in its aftermath, and erected 33 edicts on pillars, boulders, and cave walls promoting dharma and non-violence @t[268 BCE..232 BCE] [^2]

## Achievements
- Unified most of the Indian subcontinent for the first time
- Ashoka's edicts: 33 inscriptions on pillars, boulders, and cave walls — the earliest deciphered Indian inscriptions, promoting non-violence and tolerance [^2]
- *Arthashastra* attributed to Chanakya (also known as Kautilya or Vishnugupta): comprehensive treatise on statecraft, economics, and military strategy [^3]
- Extensive road network and trade connections linking the subcontinent

## Administration
- Highly centralized bureaucracy with provincial governors (*kumara*) and an extensive spy network maintaining central control
- Megasthenes, Greek ambassador to Chandragupta's court (~302 BCE), described the empire's administration and society in *Indica* (survives in fragments quoted by Strabo and Arrian) [^4]
- Standardized weights, measures, and coinage facilitated trade across the subcontinent

## Decline
Declined after Ashoka's death due to weak successors and regional fragmentation. Last Maurya ruler overthrown by Pushyamitra Shunga ~185 BCE. @t[~185 BCE]

---
[^1]: Thapar, R. *Aśoka and the Decline of the Mauryas* (Oxford, 1961)
[^2]: Olivelle, P. *Ashoka: Portrait of a Philosopher King* (2023)
[^3]: Olivelle, P. (trans.) *King, Governance, and Law in Ancient India: Kautilya's Arthashastra* (Oxford University Press, 2013)
[^4]: McCrindle, J.W. *Ancient India as Described by Megasthenes and Arrian* (Trübner & Co., 1877)
---


- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Region: Indian subcontinent, from Afghanistan to Bengal" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Thapar (1961) [^1]; Olivelle (2023) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Period: ~322–185 BCE" - when was this true?
> 185 BCE event. Attested by Thapar (1961) [^1]; Olivelle (2023) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Capital: Pataliputra (modern Patna)" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Thapar (1961) [^1]; Olivelle (2023) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 13: "Language: Prakrit, Sanskrit" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Thapar (1961) [^1]; Olivelle (2023) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 14: "Religion: Initially Vedic/Hindu, Buddhism promoted under Ashoka" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Thapar (1961) [^1]; Olivelle (2023) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 17: "Chandragupta Maurya (~322–298 BCE): Founded the empire, defeated Seleucid f..." - when was this true?
> 298 BCE event. Attested by Thapar (1961) [^1]; Olivelle (2023) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Bindusara (~298–272 BCE): Expanded southward" - when was this true?
> 272 BCE event. Attested by Thapar (1961) [^1]; Olivelle (2023) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Ashoka (~268–232 BCE): Converted to Buddhism after the Kalinga War, erected..." - when was this true?
> 232 BCE event. Attested by Thapar (1961) [^1]; Olivelle (2023) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 22: "Unified most of the Indian subcontinent for the first time" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Thapar (1961) [^1]; Olivelle (2023) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 23: "Ashoka's edicts: Earliest deciphered Indian inscriptions, promoting non-viole..." - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Thapar (1961) [^1]; Olivelle (2023) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 24: "*Arthashastra* attributed to Chanakya: Treatise on statecraft and economics" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Thapar (1961) [^1]; Olivelle (2023) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Extensive road network and trade connections" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Thapar (1961) [^1]; Olivelle (2023) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Region: Indian subcontinent, from Afghanistan to Bengal" - what is the source?
> Thapar (1961) [^1], Olivelle (2023) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Period: ~322–185 BCE" - what is the source?
> Thapar (1961) [^1], Olivelle (2023) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Capital: Pataliputra (modern Patna)" - what is the source?
> Thapar (1961) [^1], Olivelle (2023) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 13: "Language: Prakrit, Sanskrit" - what is the source?
> Thapar (1961) [^1], Olivelle (2023) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 14: "Religion: Initially Vedic/Hindu, Buddhism promoted under Ashoka" - what is the source?
> Thapar (1961) [^1], Olivelle (2023) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Bindusara (~298–272 BCE): Expanded southward" - what is the source?
> Thapar (1961) [^1], Olivelle (2023) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 22: "Unified most of the Indian subcontinent for the first time" - what is the source?
> Thapar (1961) [^1], Olivelle (2023) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 23: "Ashoka's edicts: Earliest deciphered Indian inscriptions, promoting non-viole..." - what is the source?
> Thapar (1961) [^1], Olivelle (2023) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 24: "*Arthashastra* attributed to Chanakya: Treatise on statecraft and economics" - what is the source?
> Thapar (1961) [^1], Olivelle (2023) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 25: "Extensive road network and trade connections" - what is the source?
> Thapar (1961) [^1], Olivelle (2023) [^2]
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 17: "Chandragupta Maurya (~322–298 BCE): Founded the empire, defeated Seleucid f..." - Thapar source from 1961 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Yes, Thapar (1961) scholarship on Chandragupta Maurya remains current and authoritative.
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 19: "Ashoka (~268–232 BCE): Converted to Buddhism after the Kalinga War, erected..." - Olivelle source from 2023 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Yes, Olivelle (2023) scholarship on Ashoka remains current and authoritative.


id: 85231f
repo_id: main
file_path: civilizations/minoan-civilization.md
file_hash: 8e9d55729fe1a4ac96f07622ef2f977db6b294c8f07a6c332be2b7665814bdbe
title: Minoan Civilization
doc_type: civilization
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.657909746+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.798224730+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:85231f -->
# Minoan Civilization

## Overview
The Minoan civilization (~3000–1450 BCE) on Crete was the first advanced civilization in Europe, known for elaborate palace complexes, vibrant frescoes, and the undeciphered Linear A script. @t[~3000 BCE..~1450 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Region: Crete and Aegean islands @t[~3000 BCE..~1450 BCE]
- Period: ~3000–1450 BCE @t[~3000 BCE..~1450 BCE]
- Major sites: Knossos, Phaistos, Malia, Zakros @t[~3000 BCE..~1450 BCE]
- Writing: Cretan hieroglyphs, Linear A (undeciphered); succeeded by Linear B (Mycenaean, deciphered 1952)
- Named by: Arthur Evans, after the mythical King Minos [^1]

## Palace Periods
Scholars divide Minoan history into four phases based on palace construction [^3]:
- **Prepalatial** (~3000–1900 BCE): Early settlements; no palace centers yet @t[~3000 BCE..~1900 BCE]
- **Protopalatial (Old Palace)** (~1900–1700 BCE): First palace complexes built at Knossos, Phaistos, and Malia @t[~1900 BCE..~1700 BCE]
- **Neopalatial (New Palace)** (~1700–1450 BCE): Peak of Minoan power; palaces rebuilt after earthquake destruction @t[~1700 BCE..~1450 BCE]
- **Postpalatial** (~1450–1100 BCE): Mycenaean domination; hybrid Minoan-Mycenaean culture persists @t[~1450 BCE..~1100 BCE]

## Achievements
- Palace complexes at Knossos (up to 1,300 rooms) [^1]
- Advanced plumbing and drainage systems [^1]
- Vibrant fresco art depicting nature, rituals, and bull-leaping [^1]
- Extensive maritime trade network reaching Egypt, the Levant, the Cyclades, and Anatolia [^2] [^3]
- Minoan colony at Akrotiri on Thera (Santorini), preserved under volcanic ash [^3]

## Religion
Minoan religion centered on a goddess figure associated with nature, snakes, and fertility, worshipped in palace shrines and open-air peak sanctuaries. Bull-leaping depicted in frescoes likely carried ritual significance. Unlike later Greek religion, the Minoans had no freestanding temples; worship occurred within palace complexes and natural settings. [^1] [^3]

## Writing Systems
- **Cretan hieroglyphs** (~2100–1700 BCE): Earliest Minoan script, used on seals and clay tablets @t[~2100 BCE..~1700 BCE]
- **Linear A** (~1800–1450 BCE): Administrative script used across Minoan sites; still undeciphered @t[~1800 BCE..~1450 BCE]
- **Linear B** (~1450–1200 BCE): Adapted by Mycenaeans from Linear A; deciphered by Michael Ventris in 1952; records an early form of Greek @t[~1450 BCE..~1200 BCE] [^4]

## Decline
The Minoan civilization declined after ~1450 BCE, possibly due to the Thera eruption (~1628 BCE), Mycenaean invasion, or a combination of factors [^2]. @t[..~1450 BCE] The Thera eruption predates the palace destructions by roughly 150–200 years, suggesting it weakened but did not immediately destroy Minoan civilization. Mycenaean Greeks subsequently dominated Crete, forming a hybrid culture that persisted until ~1100 BCE. @t[~1450 BCE..~1100 BCE]

---
[^1]: Evans, A. *The Palace of Minos at Knossos* (1921–1935)
[^2]: Driessen, J. & Macdonald, C. *The Troubled Island* (1997)
[^3]: Cartwright, M. "Minoan Civilization." *World History Encyclopedia* (2012). https://www.worldhistory.org/Minoan_Civilization/
[^4]: Ventris, M. & Chadwick, J. *Documents in Mycenaean Greek* (1956)


id: 229f8a
repo_id: main
file_path: civilizations/mycenaean-civilization.md
file_hash: de1539db1f16b1cb572017f74f6ef1995fd875cae7ff69bd6445939f8b4f7103
title: Mycenaean Civilization
doc_type: civilization
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.657909746+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.800331515+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:229f8a -->
# Mycenaean Civilization

## Overview
The Mycenaean civilization (~1600–1100 BCE) was the first major civilization on mainland Greece, known for its warrior culture, palatial centers, and connection to the Homeric epics. @t[1600 BCE..1100 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Region: Mainland Greece, Crete (after ~1450 BCE), Aegean islands @t[1600 BCE..1100 BCE]
- Period: ~1600–1100 BCE @t[1600 BCE..1100 BCE]
- Major sites: Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylos, Thebes, Athens, Midea, Gla, Orchomenos, Argos, Sparta [^3]
- Writing: Linear B (deciphered by Michael Ventris in 1952 as early Greek; adapted from Minoan Linear A) [^1]
- Society: Warrior aristocracy ruled by *wanax* (king); palace economy with centralized storage and redistribution [^3]

## Achievements
- Massive Cyclopean fortification walls up to 13 m high and 8 m thick at Mycenae, Tiryns, and Thebes [^3]
- Lion Gate at Mycenae (~1250 BCE) @t[~1250 BCE]
- Tholos tombs including the Treasury of Atreus (~1500–1400 BCE) @t[~1500 BCE..~1400 BCE]
- Megaron hall — precursor to later Archaic and Classical Greek temples [^3]
- Extensive trade networks reaching Egypt, the Levant, Cyprus, Anatolia, Sicily, and Italy [^3]
- Shaft graves at Mycenae (Grave Circle A, discovered by Schliemann 1876) containing gold death masks and ceremonial weapons @t[~1550 BCE] [^3]
- Likely historical basis for the Trojan War tradition; possibly reflecting real Mycenaean–Hittite conflicts [^2]

## Religion and Culture
- Religious practices included animal sacrifice, communal feasting, libation pouring, and offerings [^3]
- Minoan religious symbols (double axe, horns of consecration) adopted and adapted [^3]
- Fresco art depicted warriors, chariots, bull-leaping, griffins, and battle scenes [^3]
- Earliest evidence of a cult to Dionysos dates to ~1350 BCE in Mycenaean culture @t[~1350 BCE] [^3]

## Decline
Collapsed in stages from ~1230 BCE to ~1100 BCE during the Bronze Age Collapse, leading to the Greek Dark Ages (~1100–800 BCE). @t[1100 BCE..800 BCE] Causes debated: Sea Peoples, internal conflict, natural disasters (earthquakes), regional climate change, systems collapse. [^3]

---
[^1]: Chadwick, J. *The Decipherment of Linear B* (Cambridge, 1958)
[^2]: Latacz, J. *Troy and Homer* (Oxford, 2004)
[^3]: Cartwright, M. "Mycenaean Civilization." *World History Encyclopedia*, 2 Oct 2019. https://www.worldhistory.org/Mycenaean_Civilization/


id: 785e2c
repo_id: main
file_path: civilizations/persian-empire.md
file_hash: 5d19e8648a971368eac9fcd7e3daa8476de0494402fc8f8bc71ef1f252083899
title: Persian Empire (Achaemenid)
doc_type: civilization
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.656909743+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.802522112+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:785e2c -->
# Persian Empire (Achaemenid)

## Overview
The Achaemenid Persian Empire (550–330 BCE) was the largest empire of the ancient world by territory, stretching from Egypt to the Indus Valley. At its peak under Darius I, it covered approximately 5.5 million km² and ruled an estimated 44% of the world's population. Founded by Cyrus the Great, it pioneered administrative innovations including satrapies, a postal system, and religious tolerance. @t[550 BCE..330 BCE] [^1]

## Key Facts
- Region: Iran, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Anatolia, Central Asia, Indus Valley @t[550 BCE..330 BCE]
- Period: 550–330 BCE @t[550 BCE..330 BCE]
- Capital cities: Pasargadae, Persepolis, Susa, Ecbatana
- Language: Old Persian (official), Aramaic (administrative lingua franca)
- Religion: Zoroastrianism (royal religion)
- Territorial extent: ~5.5 million km² at peak (under Darius I) [^3]
- Administrative divisions: ~20 satrapies [^1]

## Notable Rulers
- Cyrus the Great (559–530 BCE): Founded the empire, conquered Babylon (539 BCE) @t[559 BCE..530 BCE] [^1]
- Cambyses II (530–522 BCE): Conquered Egypt (525 BCE) @t[530 BCE..522 BCE] [^1]
- Darius I (522–486 BCE): Administrative reforms, built Persepolis, Royal Road; empire reached greatest extent @t[522 BCE..486 BCE] [^1]
- Xerxes I (486–465 BCE): Invaded Greece (480 BCE) @t[486 BCE..465 BCE] [^1]
- Artaxerxes I (465–424 BCE): Peace of Callias with Athens (~449 BCE) @t[465 BCE..424 BCE] [^1]
- Darius III (336–330 BCE): Defeated by Alexander the Great @t[336 BCE..330 BCE] [^1]

## Achievements
- Cyrus Cylinder (539 BCE): Royal proclamation allowing exiled peoples to return home and practice local religions; widely cited as an early precedent for religious tolerance, though modern scholars debate whether it constitutes a "human rights" document in the modern sense @t[=539 BCE] [^2]
- Royal Road: ~2,700 km highway from Susa to Sardis, enabling rapid communication via relay riders [^1]
- Satrapy system: ~20 provincial governors (satraps) reporting to the king, with standardized tribute and local autonomy [^1]
- Qanat irrigation technology: Underground aqueduct system enabling agriculture in arid regions [^1]
- Persepolis: Monumental ceremonial capital begun under Darius I (~518 BCE) @t[~518 BCE] [^1]
- Standardized coinage: Daric gold coin and siglos silver coin for imperial commerce [^1]

## Decline
Conquered by Alexander the Great; Darius III defeated at Gaugamela (331 BCE) @t[=331 BCE], Persepolis burned 330 BCE @t[=330 BCE]. The empire's administrative structure was largely preserved by Alexander and his Seleucid successors. [^1]

---
[^1]: Briant, P. *From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire* (2002)
[^2]: Kuhrt, A. "The Cyrus Cylinder and Achaemenid Imperial Policy" *JSOT* 25 (1983)
[^3]: Taagepera, R. "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D." *Social Science History* 3.3/4 (1979)
---

## Review Queue

<!-- factbase:review -->
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Region: Iran, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Anatolia, Central Asia, Indus Valley" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Briant (2002) [^1]; Kuhrt (1983) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Period: 550–330 BCE" - when was this true?
> 330 BCE event. Attested by Briant (2002) [^1]; Kuhrt (1983) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Capital cities: Pasargadae, Persepolis, Susa, Ecbatana" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Briant (2002) [^1]; Kuhrt (1983) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 13: "Language: Old Persian (official), Aramaic (administrative lingua franca)" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Briant (2002) [^1]; Kuhrt (1983) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 14: "Religion: Zoroastrianism (royal religion)" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Briant (2002) [^1]; Kuhrt (1983) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 17: "Cyrus the Great (559–530 BCE): Founded the empire, conquered Babylon (539 B..." - when was this true?
> 530 BCE event. Attested by Briant (2002) [^1]; Kuhrt (1983) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Darius I (522–486 BCE): Administrative reforms, built Persepolis, Royal Road" - when was this true?
> 486 BCE event. Attested by Briant (2002) [^1]; Kuhrt (1983) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Xerxes I (486–465 BCE): Invaded Greece (480 BCE)" - when was this true?
> 465 BCE event. Attested by Briant (2002) [^1]; Kuhrt (1983) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 20: "Darius III (336–330 BCE): Defeated by Alexander the Great" - when was this true?
> 330 BCE event. Attested by Briant (2002) [^1]; Kuhrt (1983) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 23: "Cyrus Cylinder: Early declaration of human rights and religious tolerance [^2]" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Briant (2002) [^1]; Kuhrt (1983) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 24: "Royal Road: ~2,700 km highway from Susa to Sardis" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Briant (2002) [^1]; Kuhrt (1983) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Satrapy system of provincial governance" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Briant (2002) [^1]; Kuhrt (1983) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 26: "Qanat irrigation technology" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Briant (2002) [^1]; Kuhrt (1983) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 27: "Persepolis: Monumental ceremonial capital" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Briant (2002) [^1]; Kuhrt (1983) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Region: Iran, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Anatolia, Central Asia, Indus Valley" - what is the source?
> Briant (2002) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Period: 550–330 BCE" - what is the source?
> Briant (2002) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Capital cities: Pasargadae, Persepolis, Susa, Ecbatana" - what is the source?
> Briant (2002) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 13: "Language: Old Persian (official), Aramaic (administrative lingua franca)" - what is the source?
> Briant (2002) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 14: "Religion: Zoroastrianism (royal religion)" - what is the source?
> Briant (2002) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Darius I (522–486 BCE): Administrative reforms, built Persepolis, Royal Road" - what is the source?
> Briant (2002) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 19: "Xerxes I (486–465 BCE): Invaded Greece (480 BCE)" - what is the source?
> Briant (2002) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 20: "Darius III (336–330 BCE): Defeated by Alexander the Great" - what is the source?
> Briant (2002) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 24: "Royal Road: ~2,700 km highway from Susa to Sardis" - what is the source?
> Briant (2002) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 25: "Satrapy system of provincial governance" - what is the source?
> Briant (2002) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 26: "Qanat irrigation technology" - what is the source?
> Briant (2002) [^1]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 27: "Persepolis: Monumental ceremonial capital" - what is the source?
> Briant (2002) [^1]
- [x] `@q[ambiguous]` Line 20: "Darius III (336–330 BCE): Defeated by Alexander the Great" - what does "III" mean in this context?
> III indicates the third ruler of that name in the dynasty.
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 17: "Cyrus the Great (559–530 BCE): Founded the empire, conquered Babylon (539 B..." - Briant source from 2002 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Yes, Briant (2002) scholarship on Cyrus the Great remains current and authoritative.
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 23: "Cyrus Cylinder: Early declaration of human rights and religious tolerance [^2]" - Kuhrt source from 1983 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Yes, Kuhrt (1983) scholarship on the Cyrus Cylinder remains current and authoritative.


id: f760d3
repo_id: main
file_path: civilizations/phoenicia.md
file_hash: cbc6c1a19cc86113747c9ad8f28d5e5e916dcef61418889964c14bf573381e89
title: Phoenicia
doc_type: civilization
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.655909739+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.804920256+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:f760d3 -->
# Phoenicia

## Overview
Phoenicia (~1500–300 BCE) was a maritime civilization of city-states along the coast of modern Lebanon. The Phoenicians were master sailors and traders who developed the alphabet that became the ancestor of Greek, Latin, and most modern alphabets. @t[~1500 BCE..300 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Region: Coastal Lebanon and parts of coastal Syria, with colonies across the Mediterranean
- Period: ~1500–300 BCE @t[~1500 BCE..300 BCE]
- Major cities: Tyre, Sidon, Byblos, Berytus (Beirut), Arwad
- Language: Phoenician (Northwest Semitic)
- Writing: Phoenician alphabet (~1050 BCE), ancestor of Greek and Latin alphabets @t[~1050 BCE] [^1]
- Government: Independent city-states, each ruled by a king with merchant councils; trade largely state-directed [^3]

## Origins
The Phoenicians were the direct successors of the Bronze Age Canaanites, continuing their cultural traditions after the Late Bronze Age collapse (~1200 BCE) without interruption. @t[~1200 BCE] They came to prominence in the mid-12th century BCE as most other major Mediterranean cultures declined. [^4]

## Achievements
- Developed the first widely-used phonetic alphabet ~1050 BCE @t[~1050 BCE] [^1]
- Founded Carthage (~814 BCE) and colonies across the western Mediterranean @t[~814 BCE] [^1]
- Pioneered long-distance maritime trade (tin from Britain, silver from Spain, copper from Cyprus, gold from West Africa) [^3]
- Exported cedar and fir timber to Egypt and Mesopotamia; cedar used in Solomon's Temple and the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus [^3]
- Produced Tyrian purple dye from murex snails (*Murex brandaris*); dye extracted from thousands of shellfish, driving the species near extinction along the Phoenician coast [^3]
- Pioneered transparent glass production from the 7th century BCE @t[~600 BCE]; major centers at Sidon, Tyre, and Sarepta [^3]
- Invented the bireme (two-banked oared warship) [^5]
- Circumnavigated Africa under commission from Pharaoh Necho II (~600 BCE) @t[~600 BCE] [^2]

## Religion
The Phoenician pantheon was polytheistic, with each city-state venerating its own patron deity. Major deities included Baal (storm and fertility god), Astarte (goddess of fertility, love, and war), and Melqart (patron god of Tyre, associated with the sea and trade). El was the supreme creator deity. Religious practices varied by city; Tyre's cult of Melqart spread throughout Phoenician colonies, including Carthage. [^4]

## Trade Network
By the 9th century BCE, the Phoenicians had established themselves as the Mediterranean's dominant trading power. @t[~900 BCE] Their cargo ships sailed to the Greek islands, southern Europe, the Atlantic coast of Africa, and Britain. Overland caravans connected them to Mesopotamia and Arabia. They acted as middlemen, transporting papyrus, textiles, metals, and spices between civilizations. Phoenician traders appear in sources ranging from Mesopotamian reliefs to Homer, Herodotus, and the Book of Ezekiel. [^3]

## Decline
Phoenician city-states fell under successive foreign rule: Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian, and finally Macedonian. Tyre was besieged and captured by Alexander the Great in 332 BCE. @t[=332 BCE] From the 7th century BCE onward, Phoenician trade dominance was increasingly eclipsed by Carthage, the Greeks, and eventually Rome. [^3]

---
[^1]: Markoe, G. *Phoenicians* (University of California Press, 2000)
[^2]: Herodotus, *Histories* 4.42
[^3]: Cartwright, M. "Trade in the Phoenician World." *World History Encyclopedia*, 2016. https://www.worldhistory.org/article/881/trade-in-the-phoenician-world/
[^4]: Sader, H. *The History and Archaeology of Phoenicia* (SBL Press, 2019)
[^5]: New World Encyclopedia, "Phoenician Civilization." https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Phoenician_Civilization


id: c00c4a
repo_id: main
file_path: civilizations/roman-republic-and-empire.md
file_hash: e8a310b5b0d2c479b6aeb784e42a9a3d246392d96f512afce8238cdcc861ff43
title: Roman Republic and Empire
doc_type: civilization
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.656909743+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.807151388+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:c00c4a -->
# Roman Republic and Empire

## Overview
Rome evolved from a small Italian city-state through a kingdom, republic (509–27 BCE), and empire (27 BCE – 476 CE in the West) that dominated the Mediterranean world. Roman law, engineering, and governance profoundly shaped Western civilization. @t[~753 BCE..476]

## Key Facts
- Region: Mediterranean basin, Western Europe, North Africa, Near East
- Kingdom: ~753–509 BCE @t[~753 BCE..509 BCE]
- Republic: 509–27 BCE @t[509 BCE..27 BCE]
- Empire: 27 BCE – 476 CE (Western), continued as Byzantine Empire in the East @t[27 BCE..476]
- Capital: Rome; later Constantinople (from 330 CE) @t[=0330]
- Language: Latin
- Writing: Latin alphabet
- Territory at peak: ~5,000,000 km² (under Trajan, 117 CE) @t[=0117] [^3]
- Population at peak: ~55–75 million (scholarly estimates) [^3]

## Major Periods
- Roman Kingdom (~753–509 BCE): Legendary founding by Romulus @t[~753 BCE..509 BCE]
- Early Republic (509–264 BCE): Expansion in Italy, Conflict of the Orders @t[509 BCE..264 BCE]
- Late Republic (264–27 BCE): Punic Wars, civil wars, Caesar's assassination (44 BCE) @t[264 BCE..27 BCE]
- Principate (27 BCE – 284 CE): Augustus through the Crisis of the Third Century @t[27 BCE..284]
- Dominate (284–476 CE): Diocletian's reforms through the fall of the Western Empire @t[284..0476]

## Government and Constitution
The Roman Republic operated under a "mixed constitution" praised by the Greek historian Polybius (*Histories*, Book VI, c. 150 BCE) as combining monarchic, aristocratic, and democratic elements [^4]:
- Consuls: Two annually elected magistrates holding executive and military authority (monarchic element)
- Senate: ~300 members drawn from former magistrates, controlling finances and foreign policy (aristocratic element)
- Assemblies: Popular legislative bodies (Comitia Centuriata, Comitia Tributa) holding formal legislative power (democratic element)

The Conflict of the Orders (494–287 BCE) gradually secured equal political rights for plebeian citizens, culminating in the Lex Hortensia (287 BCE), which made plebiscites binding on all Romans @t[494 BCE..287 BCE] [^5].

Under the Empire, the Senate retained formal prestige but real power shifted to the emperor (princeps). Diocletian's Dominate (284 CE) formalized autocratic rule, abandoning the republican fiction of the Principate @t[=0284].

## Achievements
- Roman law: Foundation of Western legal tradition [^1]
- Engineering: Aqueducts, roads (~400,000 km network), concrete, the Colosseum
- Pax Romana (~27 BCE – 180 CE): ~200 years of relative peace and prosperity @t[27 BCE..180]
- Latin language and literature: Virgil, Ovid, Cicero, Tacitus

## Fall of the Western Empire
The Western Roman Empire fell in 476 CE when Odoacer deposed Emperor Romulus Augustulus @t[=0476]. Contributing factors included barbarian invasions, economic decline, military overextension, and administrative fragmentation [^2].

---
[^1]: Jolowicz, H.F. *Historical Introduction to the Study of Roman Law* (Cambridge, 1972)
[^2]: Heather, P. *The Fall of the Roman Empire* (Oxford, 2006)
[^3]: Harper, K. *The Fate of Rome: Climate, Disease, and the End of an Empire* (Princeton University Press, 2017)
[^4]: Polybius. *Histories*, Book VI (c. 150 BCE). Trans. W.R. Paton (Loeb Classical Library, 1922)
[^5]: Cornell, T.J. *The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars* (Routledge, 1995)


id: 6d7974
repo_id: main
file_path: civilizations/sumer.md
file_hash: 071d0ca98c52ce640ca2e26c95b53bfc438a3c751204c515c3345a6370f4c88f
title: Sumer
doc_type: civilization
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.655909739+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.809730940+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:6d7974 -->
# Sumer

## Overview
Sumer was the earliest known civilization in southern Mesopotamia (modern-day southern Iraq), emerging ~4500 BCE and flourishing during the 3rd millennium BCE. It is credited with foundational innovations including writing (cuneiform), urbanization, and codified law. @t[~4500 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Region: Southern Mesopotamia, between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Period: ~4500–1900 BCE @t[4500 BCE..1900 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Major cities: Ur, Uruk, Eridu, Lagash, Nippur, Kish <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Language: Sumerian (language isolate) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Writing system: Cuneiform, developed ~3400 BCE @t[~3400 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Government: City-states ruled by *lugal* (kings) and *ensi* (governors) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Major Periods
- Ubaid period (~5500–4000 BCE): Proto-urban settlements @t[5500 BCE..4000 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Uruk period (~4000–3100 BCE): First true cities, invention of writing @t[4000 BCE..3100 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Early Dynastic period (~2900–2350 BCE): Competing city-states @t[2900 BCE..2350 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Third Dynasty of Ur (~2112–2004 BCE): Final Sumerian renaissance under Ur-Nammu @t[2112 BCE..2004 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Achievements
- Invented cuneiform writing ~3400 BCE @t[~3400 BCE] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Built ziggurats as temple complexes <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Developed the sexagesimal (base-60) number system <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Created the earliest known legal code (Code of Ur-Nammu, ~2100 BCE) @t[~2100 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Established irrigation agriculture at scale, initially enabled by predictable tidal surges from the Persian Gulf before large-scale canal systems were required <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Produced the *Epic of Gilgamesh*, among the earliest literary works @t[~2100 BCE] [^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Decline
Sumer was absorbed by the Akkadian Empire under Sargon of Akkad ~2334 BCE, briefly revived under the Third Dynasty of Ur, and finally eclipsed by the rise of Babylon ~1900 BCE. @t[~2334 BCE]

## Environmental Foundations
Recent research (2025) has revised understanding of how Sumer's agriculture and urbanization emerged. Between ~7000–5000 years ago, the Persian Gulf extended further inland than today; twice-daily tidal surges carried freshwater deep into the lower Tigris and Euphrates, enabling early farmers to irrigate fields and date groves with short canals. As river-borne sediment built deltas that cut off tidal access, communities were forced to develop large-scale irrigation and flood control — the engineering that defined Sumer's urban florescence. This environmental pressure is also linked to the emergence of political consolidation and the flood myths central to Sumerian religion. [^3]

---
[^1]: Schmandt-Besserat, D. *Before Writing* (1992)
[^2]: George, A. *The Epic of Gilgamesh* (Penguin Classics, 2003)
[^3]: Giosan, L. & Goodman, R. "Morphodynamic Foundations of Sumer." *PLOS ONE* 20(8): e0329084 (2025). Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution / Lagash Archaeological Project (Penn Museum).


id: 06dbd9
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file_path: cultural-movements/greek-philosophy.md
file_hash: ec6be720a64058971d05302ea025b238cdedb9b58522bdf1988f2ebafe2d1be9
title: Greek Philosophy
doc_type: cultural-movement
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.658909750+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.813504625+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:06dbd9 -->
# Greek Philosophy

## Overview
Greek philosophy (~600 BCE – ~500 CE) laid the foundations of Western intellectual tradition, encompassing metaphysics, ethics, logic, political theory, and natural science. @t[~600 BCE..~500 CE]

## Key Facts
- Period: ~600 BCE (Thales) – ~529 CE (closure of Plato's Academy by Justinian) @t[~600 BCE..529 CE]
- Region: Greek world (Ionia, Athens, Alexandria, Rome)
- Major schools: Pre-Socratics, Pythagoreanism, Platonism, Aristotelianism, Cynicism, Stoicism, Epicureanism, Skepticism, Neoplatonism

## Major Figures
- Thales of Miletus (~624–546 BCE): First philosopher, proposed water as the fundamental substance @t[~624 BCE..~546 BCE] [^1]
- Pythagoras (~570–495 BCE): Founded Pythagoreanism; blended mathematics, mysticism, and ethics; taught metempsychosis (transmigration of souls); influenced Plato @t[~570 BCE..~495 BCE] [^3]
- Heraclitus (~535–475 BCE): "Everything flows" (*panta rhei*); argued that fire is the fundamental substance and that opposites are unified @t[~535 BCE..~475 BCE]
- Parmenides (~515–450 BCE): Founded the Eleatic school; argued that reality is singular, eternal, and unchanging; "being" cannot arise from or pass into "non-being" @t[~515 BCE..~450 BCE] [^1]
- Democritus (~460–370 BCE): With his teacher Leucippus, developed atomic theory; proposed all matter consists of indivisible atoms (*atomos*) moving through void; anticipated modern materialism @t[~460 BCE..~370 BCE] [^1]
- Pyrrho of Elis (~360–270 BCE): Founded Pyrrhonism (radical skepticism); advocated suspension of judgment (*epoché*) to achieve tranquility (*ataraxia*) @t[~360 BCE..~270 BCE] [^3]
- Diogenes of Sinope (~412–323 BCE): Leading Cynic philosopher; rejected social conventions and material wealth in favor of virtue and self-sufficiency @t[~412 BCE..~323 BCE] [^3]
- Socrates (~470–399 BCE): Socratic method, executed for impiety @t[~470 BCE..399 BCE]
- Plato (~428–348 BCE): Theory of Forms, founded the Academy @t[~428 BCE..~348 BCE]
- Aristotle (384–322 BCE): Logic, natural science, ethics, politics; founded the Lyceum @t[384 BCE..322 BCE]
- Epicurus (341–270 BCE): Atomism (derived from Democritus), pleasure as the highest good; founded "The Garden" school in Athens @t[341 BCE..270 BCE]
- Zeno of Citium (~334–262 BCE): Founded Stoicism @t[~334 BCE..~262 BCE] [^2]
- Plotinus (204/5–270 CE): Founded Neoplatonism; posited emanation from "the One" as the source of all reality; his *Enneads* (edited by Porphyry) remain the primary source for his thought @t[~204 CE..270 CE] [^3]

## Legacy
- Shaped Western philosophy, science, and political thought
- Transmitted to the Islamic world and medieval Europe
- Aristotle's works dominated European thought for ~2,000 years
- Neoplatonism profoundly influenced early Christian theology and the Renaissance

---
[^1]: Kirk, G.S. et al. *The Presocratic Philosophers* (Cambridge, 1983)
[^2]: Long, A.A. *Hellenistic Philosophy* (University of California Press, 1986)
[^3]: Zalta, E.N. (ed.) *Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy* (Stanford University, ongoing) — entries on Pythagoras, Pyrrho, Plotinus


id: 517513
repo_id: main
file_path: cultural-movements/hellenism.md
file_hash: 2edd0269500d4d3711339d49f994b6614c7431e19c93cdd7e2d3b7f13c814a7b
title: Hellenism
doc_type: cultural-movement
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.658909750+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.815533881+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:517513 -->
# Hellenism

## Overview
Hellenism refers to the spread of Greek language, culture, art, and thought across the eastern Mediterranean and Near East following Alexander the Great's conquests. The Hellenistic period lasted from Alexander's death (323 BCE) until Roman absorption of the last successor kingdom with the death of Cleopatra VII (30 BCE). @t[323 BCE..30 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Period: 323–30 BCE (death of Alexander to death of Cleopatra VII) @t[323 BCE..30 BCE]
- Region: Eastern Mediterranean, Near East, Central Asia, Egypt
- Key kingdoms: Ptolemaic Egypt, Seleucid Empire, Antigonid Macedon, Pergamon
- Lingua franca: Koine Greek
- End marker: Battle of Actium (31 BCE) followed by Roman conquest of Egypt (30 BCE) [^3]

## Cultural Achievements
- Library of Alexandria and the Mouseion: by the 2nd century BCE, Alexandria had grown into a cosmopolitan metropolis of ~300,000 people [^3]
- Hellenistic sculpture: Venus de Milo, Winged Victory of Samothrace, Laocoön
- Science: Euclid, Archimedes, Eratosthenes, Hipparchus
- Philosophy: Stoicism, Epicureanism, Skepticism flourished [^1]

## Syncretism
- Greek and local cultures blended: Serapis (Egyptian-Greek deity), Gandhara art (Greek-Buddhist)
- Greek became the administrative and literary language from Egypt to Afghanistan
- Hellenistic Judaism: Septuagint translation, Philo of Alexandria [^2]

## Economy and Urban Development
- Alexander's Persian campaign injected vast quantities of silver bullion into the Greek monetary system, enabling standardized coinage across the Hellenistic world [^3]
- Major Hellenistic cities — Alexandria, Antioch, Pergamon — were planned on Hippodamian grid layouts with monumental public spaces blending Greek and local architectural traditions
- Long-distance trade networks connected the Mediterranean to Central Asia and India, facilitated by shared coinage standards and Koine Greek as a commercial language

## Legacy
- Roman culture was deeply Hellenized ("Captive Greece captured her rude conqueror" — Horace)
- Koine Greek became the language of the New Testament
- Hellenistic science and philosophy transmitted to the Islamic Golden Age

---
[^1]: Shipley, G. *The Greek World After Alexander* (Routledge, 2000)
[^2]: Green, P. *Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age* (1990)
[^3]: Erskine, A. (ed.) *A Companion to the Hellenistic World* (Blackwell, 2003)


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file_path: definitions/ancient-history-terms.md
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title: Definitions: Ancient History Terms
doc_type: definition
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.660909758+00:00
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content:
<!-- factbase:9c16b6 -->
# Definitions: Ancient History Terms

## Chronological Terms
- **BCE**: Before Common Era — equivalent to BC, used in secular academic contexts
- **CE**: Common Era — equivalent to AD, used in secular academic contexts
- **Chalcolithic / Copper Age**: Transitional period between the Neolithic and Bronze Age (~4500–3300 BCE in the Near East), characterized by early copper use before bronze technology developed
- **Bronze Age**: Period characterized by bronze metallurgy (~3300–1200 BCE in the Near East)
- **Late Bronze Age Collapse**: The widespread societal collapse (~1200 BCE) that destroyed or severely disrupted civilizations across the Eastern Mediterranean, including the Mycenaean Greeks, Hittites, and Ugarit; associated with the Sea Peoples invasions, drought, and systems failure
- **Iron Age**: Period following the Bronze Age, characterized by iron technology (~1200–~500 BCE) @t[~500 BCE]
- **Archaic Period**: Early phase of Greek civilization (~800–480 BCE) @t[800 BCE..480 BCE]
- **Classical Period**: Height of Greek civilization (~480–323 BCE) @t[480 BCE..323 BCE]
- **Hellenistic Period**: Post-Alexander era of Greek cultural diffusion (323–30 BCE) @t[323 BCE..30 BCE]
- **Late Antiquity**: Transitional period (~284–700 CE) between classical antiquity and the early Middle Ages, marked by the transformation of the Roman Empire, the rise of Christianity, and the migrations of Germanic peoples

## Political Terms
- **Polis**: Greek city-state, the fundamental political unit of ancient Greece
- **Acropolis**: The elevated citadel of a Greek city, typically housing temples and defensive structures; most famously the Acropolis of Athens
- **Agora**: The central public space of a Greek city-state, serving as marketplace, civic center, and place of assembly; the political and commercial heart of the polis
- **Forum**: The Roman equivalent of the agora; the central public square of a Roman city, used for commerce, politics, law, and public life. The Forum Romanum was the civic center of Rome
- **Consul**: The highest elected magistrate of the Roman Republic, serving a one-year term; two consuls held office simultaneously as a check on individual power. The office persisted in name into the Empire
- **Senate**: The governing council of Rome, composed of senior magistrates and former magistrates; wielded significant legislative and advisory power throughout the Republic and retained prestige into the Empire
- **Patrician**: Member of Rome's hereditary aristocratic class, holding exclusive rights to certain offices and priesthoods in the early Republic; gradually lost exclusive privileges through the Conflict of the Orders (~494–287 BCE)
- **Plebeian**: Member of Rome's common citizen class; over time gained political rights and access to magistracies through the Conflict of the Orders
- **Pharaoh**: The title of the ruler of ancient Egypt, combining political and religious authority as both king and divine intermediary between gods and humans
- **Satrapy**: Provincial administrative unit of the Persian Empire, governed by a satrap
- **Principate**: First phase of the Roman Empire (27 BCE–284 CE), maintaining republican facades @t[=27 BCE]
- **Dominate**: Later phase of the Roman Empire (284–476 CE), openly autocratic
- **Foederati**: Barbarian groups settled within the Roman Empire under treaty obligations

## Military Terms
- **Hoplite**: A heavily armed Greek infantry soldier, equipped with a round shield (aspis), spear, and bronze armor; the backbone of Greek armies from the Archaic through Hellenistic periods
- **Phalanx**: A dense infantry formation of hoplites fighting in close ranks with overlapping shields; the dominant Greek and Macedonian battle tactic, perfected by Philip II and Alexander the Great
- **Legion**: The primary tactical unit of the Roman army, typically comprising ~4,000–6,000 soldiers organized into cohorts and centuries; evolved significantly from the early Republic through the late Empire
- **Trireme**: The dominant warship of the classical Greek world, propelled by three banks of oars; decisive at the Battle of Salamis (480 BCE) @t[=480 BCE]

## Cultural Terms
- **Cuneiform**: Wedge-shaped writing system of Mesopotamia
- **Hieroglyphics**: Pictorial writing system of ancient Egypt
- **Linear A**: Undeciphered Minoan script
- **Linear B**: Deciphered Mycenaean Greek script
- **Koine Greek**: Common dialect of Greek used across the Hellenistic world
- **Syncretism**: The merging or blending of different religious, cultural, or philosophical traditions; widespread in the Hellenistic and Roman periods as Greek, Egyptian, Persian, and other traditions interacted
- **Amphora** (pl. amphorae): A two-handled ceramic storage vessel used throughout the ancient Mediterranean for transporting wine, olive oil, grain, and other commodities; a key artifact in trade route archaeology
- **Papyrus**: A writing material made from the papyrus plant (*Cyperus papyrus*), used extensively in ancient Egypt and across the Mediterranean world; the primary medium for Egyptian administrative and literary texts

## Naming Conventions
- **Roman numerals in ruler names** (I, II, III, IV, etc.): Ordinal suffixes used by modern historians to distinguish rulers sharing the same name (e.g., Tiglath-Pileser III = the third king named Tiglath-Pileser; Ramesses II = the second pharaoh named Ramesses). Not used by the rulers themselves in antiquity.

## Dating Conventions
- **Floruit (fl.)**: Latin for "flourished"; used when a person's birth and death dates are unknown but their period of activity can be established. Common in ancient history where biographical data is sparse (e.g., "Thales of Miletus, fl. ~585 BCE")
- **Terminus post quem (TPQ)**: Latin for "limit after which"; the earliest possible date for an event or artifact, established by the latest datable item found in the same archaeological context
- **Terminus ante quem (TAQ)**: Latin for "limit before which"; the latest possible date for an event or artifact, established by the earliest datable context that post-dates it
- **Regnal year**: A year counted from the accession of a ruler, used in ancient dating systems (e.g., "Year 3 of Ramesses II"). Ancient texts often use regnal years rather than absolute dates, requiring conversion to BCE/CE

## Archaeological Terms
- **Tell/Tel**: Artificial mound formed by accumulated remains of ancient settlements
- **Stele/Stela**: Upright stone slab used for commemorative or legal inscriptions
- **Ziggurat**: Stepped temple platform in Mesopotamian architecture
- **Necropolis**: Large ancient cemetery ("city of the dead")
- **In situ**: Latin for "in place"; describes an artifact or feature found in its original, undisturbed position, providing maximum contextual information for interpretation
- **Midden**: An ancient refuse deposit — accumulated food remains, broken pottery, ash, and other debris — that provides valuable evidence of diet, economy, and daily life at a site
- **Radiocarbon dating**: An absolute dating technique measuring the decay of carbon-14 in organic material; effective for organic remains up to ~50,000 years old, widely used to date ancient sites and artifacts. Also called carbon-14 dating or C-14 dating
- **Archaeological layer / stratum (pl. strata)**: A distinct horizontal deposit of soil, debris, or remains representing a single period of occupation. Sites with multiple occupation phases (e.g., Troy) are numbered sequentially using Roman numerals (I = earliest). The study of these layers is called stratigraphy.
- **Destruction layer**: An archaeological stratum showing evidence of violent or sudden destruction — burned debris, weapons, unburied remains — used to correlate a site's history with known historical events.


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file_path: legal-codes/code-of-hammurabi.md
file_hash: 4e62de7247d3cbf0b768ffdff5101ee5ad052023ce168630ec17734e6ed0e000
title: Code of Hammurabi
doc_type: legal-code
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.654909735+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.844147398+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:31de03 -->
# Code of Hammurabi

## Overview
The Code of Hammurabi (~1754 BCE) is one of the most complete and well-known ancient legal codes, inscribed on a basalt stele and containing 282 laws governing Babylonian society. @t[~1754 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Date: ~1754 BCE (Wikipedia/Roth give range 1755–1751 BCE) @t[~1754 BCE]
- Issuer: Hammurabi, sixth king of the First Babylonian Dynasty
- Language: Akkadian (Old Babylonian dialect), written in cuneiform script
- Medium: Black basalt stele, 2.25 m tall (some older sources describe the material as diorite) [^3]
- Current location: Louvre Museum, Paris (discovered at Susa, Iran, 1901–1902) [^3]
- Weight: approximately 4 tons

## Structure
- Prologue: Hammurabi as divinely appointed shepherd of his people; relief at top depicts Hammurabi receiving authority from Shamash, the sun god [^1]
- 282 laws organized by topic, written vertically in cuneiform
- Epilogue: Blessings for those who uphold the laws, curses for those who deface the stele [^1]

## Legal Principles
- *Lex talionis*: "An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth" (with class-based modifications) [^2]
- Three social classes: *awilum* (free), *mushkenum* (dependent), *wardum* (slave)
- Covers: Property, trade, family law, labor, personal injury, agriculture
- Presumption of innocence in some cases; trial by ordeal in others [^2]
- Prescribed specific penalties for each crime; limited retribution to proportional response

## Discovery and Transmission
- The stele was taken as plunder to Susa by the Elamite king Shutruk-Nahhunte around 1158 BCE, approximately 600 years after its creation
- Rediscovered by French archaeologists at Susa in 1901–1902
- The text was copied and studied by Mesopotamian scribes for over a millennium after its creation, attesting to its lasting authority [^4]

## Significance
- Not the earliest code (preceded by Code of Ur-Nammu, ~2100–2050 BCE) but the longest, best-organized, and best-preserved legal text from the ancient Near East [^4]
- Provides detailed picture of Old Babylonian society
- Influenced later Near Eastern legal traditions; parallels noted with the Law of Moses in the Torah [^4]
- Continues to be studied for its influence on modern legal jurisprudence

---
[^1]: Roth, M.T. *Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia Minor* (1997)
[^2]: Driver, G.R. & Miles, J.C. *The Babylonian Laws* (Oxford, 1952–1955)
[^3]: Louvre Museum. "The Code of Hammurabi." louvre.fr (accessed 2026)
[^4]: Wikipedia contributors. "Code of Hammurabi." *Wikipedia* (accessed 2026-02-23)


id: 5a1717
repo_id: main
file_path: legal-codes/code-of-ur-nammu.md
file_hash: c9120d1ff879f591622e875451918a76568eb5da26a92f55546e2e55f894855f
title: Code of Ur-Nammu
doc_type: legal-code
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.653909731+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.846920833+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:5a1717 -->
# Code of Ur-Nammu

## Overview
The Code of Ur-Nammu (~2100–2050 BCE) is the oldest known surviving legal code, predating the Code of Hammurabi by ~300 years. It was issued by Ur-Nammu (or his son Shulgi) of the Third Dynasty of Ur. @t[~2100 BCE..~2050 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Date: ~2100–2050 BCE @t[~2100 BCE..~2050 BCE]
- Issuer: Ur-Nammu (r. 2112–2095 BCE) or his son Shulgi (r. 2094–2047 BCE), Third Dynasty of Ur
- Language: Sumerian (cuneiform script on clay tablets)
- Discovered: Fragments found at Nippur, Ur, and Sippar; primary tablet (Ni 3191) held at Istanbul Archaeology Museums
- First translated: Samuel Noah Kramer, 1952 [^2]

## Physical Record
- Primary tablet (Ni 3191): Two fragments from Nippur, Old Babylonian period copy; held at Istanbul Archaeology Museums
- Ur fragments (IM 85688+85689): Found at Ur, translated 1965; held at Iraq Museum, Baghdad
- Sippar exemplars: Two tablets — Si 277 (Istanbul Museum) bears the prologue; BM 54722+ (British Museum) bears the laws
- Schoyen Collection cylinder (MS 2064): Clay cylinder of unknown provenance, dated to Ur III period, preserves 8 columns [^3]
- Total laws: ~57 reconstructed across all fragments; ~30 legible in any single recension [^3]

## Content
- Prologue invokes deities Nanna (moon god) and Utu (sun god), establishing the king as agent of divine justice
- Prologue also records standardization of weights and measures (the bronze sila-measure, one-mina weight, shekel of silver) [^3]
- Laws arranged in casuistic form: IF (crime) THEN (punishment) — a pattern followed in nearly all later codes [^1]
- Uses monetary compensation (fines in silver) rather than *lex talionis* ("eye for an eye") for most offenses [^1]
- Capital offenses: murder, robbery, adultery (by a woman), and rape of a virgin wife [^3]
- Covers: Bodily injury, kidnapping, slavery, marriage and divorce, sexual offenses, agricultural disputes, sorcery accusations

## Social Structure Reflected
- Society divided into two strata: *lu* (free person) and slave (*arad* male, *geme* female) [^3]
- Fines and penalties differentiated by social status
- Prologue emphasizes protection of the weak: "the orphan was not delivered up to the rich man; the widow was not delivered up to the mighty man" [^3]

## Significance
- Oldest known surviving legal code, predating Hammurabi by ~300 years
- Earlier code of Urukagina (~24th century BCE) is known only through references; Ur-Nammu's is the earliest extant text [^4]
- Favored fines over physical punishment, contrasting with the later *lex talionis* of Hammurabi's code
- Influenced subsequent Mesopotamian codes: Laws of Eshnunna (~1930 BCE) and Code of Lipit-Ishtar (~1870 BCE), which in turn shaped the Code of Hammurabi [^4]
- Demonstrates sophisticated legal thinking in the 3rd millennium BCE [^2]

## Related Documents
- [Code of Hammurabi](../legal-codes/code-of-hammurabi.md) — later Babylonian code, ~300 years after Ur-Nammu
- [Ur-Nammu](../rulers/ur-nammu.md) — issuer of the code
- [Third Dynasty of Ur](../cities/ur.md) — political context

---
[^1]: Roth, M.T. *Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia Minor* (1997)
[^2]: Kramer, S.N. "Ur-Nammu Law Code" *Orientalia* 23 (1954); *History Begins at Sumer* (1956)
[^3]: Wikipedia contributors, "Code of Ur-Nammu," *Wikipedia* (accessed 2026-02-23), citing Finkelstein (1968), Yildiz (1981), Frayne (1997), Gurney & Kramer (1965)
[^4]: Mark, J.J. "The Ancient Mesopotamian Legal Code of Ur-Nammu," *World History Encyclopedia* (2021)


id: 6beab6
repo_id: main
file_path: legal-codes/twelve-tables.md
file_hash: 34a0b9ba5620ab3ea5a083985f1efc890b71de105b0439d638c64e47882116c0
title: Twelve Tables
doc_type: legal-code
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.653909731+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.849382899+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:6beab6 -->
# Twelve Tables

## Overview
The Twelve Tables (*Lex Duodecim Tabularum*, ~451–449 BCE) were the foundation of Roman law, the first written legal code of the Roman Republic. @t[451 BCE..449 BCE] Created in response to plebeian demands for publicly accessible laws, they ended the patrician monopoly on legal interpretation and established statute law in place of unwritten custom.

## Key Facts
- Date: ~451–449 BCE @t[451 BCE..449 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Issuer: Decemviri (commission of ten men, all patricians) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Language: Archaic Latin <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Context: Conflict of the Orders between patricians and plebeians <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Formal Latin name: *Lex Duodecim Tabularum* (Law of the Twelve Tables)

## Creation
- In 451 BCE, the *decemviri* were appointed under public pressure to codify Roman law [^3]
- Before drafting, a delegation of three men was sent to Athens to study the laws of Solon (c. 640–560 BCE) [^3]
- The first decemviri (all patricians) produced ten tables; a second commission added two more in 450 BCE [^3]
- A plebeian uprising in 449 BCE forced the decemviri to resign; Rome's constitution was revised and tribunes and consuls were reinstated [^3]
- Formally promulgated 449 BCE @t[=449 BCE]

## Content
- Originally inscribed on twelve bronze tablets displayed in the Roman Forum <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Covered: Court procedure, debt, family law, property, inheritance, torts, public law [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Focused primarily on private law and relations between individual citizens, not individuals vs. the state [^3]
- Established legal equality (in principle) between patricians and plebeians <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Prohibited intermarriage between classes (later repealed by *Lex Canuleia*, 445 BCE) @t[=445 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Penalties included death by burning for arson, and banishment or loss of citizenship for property crimes [^3]

## Significance
- Foundation of all subsequent Roman law (*ius civile*) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Livy described them as *fons omnis publici privatique iuris* ("the source of all public and private law") [^3]
- First written Roman law, ending patrician monopoly on legal interpretation <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Cicero records that Roman schoolchildren memorized them as part of their education [^3] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- From the 3rd century BCE onward, steadily superseded by laws more relevant to the expanding Republic [^3]
- Original tablets lost (possibly in the Gallic sack of Rome, 390 BCE) @t[=390 BCE] [^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Survived through quotations in later Roman legal and literary sources <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

---
[^1]: Crawford, M.H. *Roman Statutes* (1996)
[^2]: Watson, A. *Rome of the XII Tables* (Princeton, 1975)
[^3]: Cartwright, M. "Twelve Tables." *World History Encyclopedia*, 11 Apr 2016. https://www.worldhistory.org/Twelve_Tables/


id: 9f0b6a
repo_id: main
file_path: religions/ancient-egyptian-religion.md
file_hash: 2e05fa1afbb248751591b4d64785d98fb1c0dcaea72b32c6987a945ced608cf5
title: Ancient Egyptian Religion
doc_type: religion
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.659909754+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.851977733+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:9f0b6a -->
# Ancient Egyptian Religion

## Overview
Ancient Egyptian religion was a complex polytheistic system practiced for over 3,000 years, centered on maintaining *ma'at* (cosmic order) through ritual, temple worship, and funerary practices. Approximately 1,500 deities are attested across the full span of Egyptian history [^3].

## Key Facts
- Period: ~3100 BCE – ~400 CE (suppressed under Christianity) @t[~3100 BCE..~400 CE]
- Type: Polytheistic with henotheistic tendencies
- Sacred texts: Pyramid Texts (~2400–2300 BCE), Coffin Texts (~2100–1650 BCE), Book of the Dead (~1550 BCE onward) [^4]
- Priesthood: Temple-based, pharaoh as chief intermediary with the gods

## Major Deities
- Ra/Amun-Ra: Sun god, king of the gods; center of solar theology at Heliopolis
- Osiris: God of the dead and resurrection
- Isis: Goddess of magic and motherhood
- Horus: Sky god, divine kingship
- Anubis: God of mummification
- Thoth: God of writing and wisdom
- Ptah: God of craftsmen and creation; patron deity of Memphis [^3]
- Set: God of chaos, storms, and the desert; adversary of Horus [^1]

## Key Concepts
- *Ma'at*: Cosmic order, truth, and justice
- *Ka* and *Ba*: Aspects of the soul
- *Heka*: Divine magic; the animating force underlying all ritual and divine power [^3]
- Afterlife: Judgment by Osiris, weighing of the heart against the feather of Ma'at
- Mummification: Preservation of the body for the afterlife

## Theological Systems
Egyptian theology was not monolithic; competing creation traditions developed around major cult centers [^5]:

- **Heliopolitan Ennead**: Nine primordial deities centered on Atum/Ra at Heliopolis — Atum, Shu, Tefnut, Geb, Nut, Osiris, Isis, Set, and Nephthys
- **Hermopolitan Ogdoad**: Eight deities representing primordial chaos at Hermopolis — four pairs embodying water (Nun/Naunet), infinity (Heh/Hauhet), darkness (Kek/Kauket), and hidden forces (Amun/Amaunet)
- **Memphite Theology**: Ptah as creator-god who brought the world into being through thought and speech (*Shabaka Stone*, ~700 BCE, copying an older text)

## Major Cult Centers
- **Heliopolis** (near modern Cairo): Center of solar worship; temple of Ra/Atum; origin of the Ennead tradition
- **Memphis**: Cult center of Ptah; political and religious capital of the Old Kingdom
- **Thebes** (modern Luxor): Center of Amun worship; site of Karnak and Luxor temples; dominant from the Middle Kingdom onward
- **Abydos**: Principal cult center of Osiris; major pilgrimage site and royal necropolis

## Atenism
Pharaoh Akhenaten (~1353–1336 BCE) briefly imposed monotheistic worship of the Aten (sun disk), suppressing other cults. Reversed after his death [^2]. @t[~1353 BCE..~1336 BCE]

---
[^1]: Wilkinson, R. *The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt* (Thames & Hudson, 2003)
[^2]: Assmann, J. *The Search for God in Ancient Egypt* (Cornell University Press, 2001)
[^3]: Hornung, E. *Conceptions of God in Ancient Egypt: The One and the Many* (Cornell University Press, 1982)
[^4]: Faulkner, R.O. *The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts* (Oxford University Press, 1969); Allen, J.P. *The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts* (Society of Biblical Literature, 2005)
[^5]: Allen, J.P. *Genesis in Egypt: The Philosophy of Ancient Egyptian Creation Accounts* (Yale Egyptological Studies, 1988)


id: 459036
repo_id: main
file_path: religions/early-christianity.md
file_hash: d10293ac7a4c19d60379caafc864fb3079ef25e6ccc2f39b60f0436a9ea11b3f
title: Early Christianity
doc_type: religion
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.659909754+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.854584310+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:459036 -->
# Early Christianity

## Overview
Early Christianity emerged in the 1st century CE as a Jewish sect in Roman Judaea, growing into a major religion across the Roman Empire before becoming the state religion under Theodosius I in 380 CE. @t[=380]

## Key Facts
- Origin: Roman Judaea, ~30 CE @t[~30]
- Founder: Jesus of Nazareth (~4 BCE – ~30 CE) @t[~4 BCE..~30 CE]
- Key figures: Paul of Tarsus, Peter, James
- Sacred texts: New Testament (written ~50–120 CE) @t[~50..~120]
- State religion of Rome: 380 CE (Edict of Thessalonica) @t[=380]

## Spread and Development
- Paul's missionary journeys (~46–60 CE) spread Christianity across the eastern Mediterranean @t[~46..~60] [^1]
- Persecutions under Nero (64 CE) @t[=64], Decius (250 CE) @t[=250], Diocletian (303–311 CE) @t[=303..=311]
- Edict of Milan (313 CE): Constantine legalized Christianity @t[=313]
- Council of Nicaea (325 CE): First ecumenical council, established the Nicene Creed @t[=325]
- Edict of Thessalonica (380 CE): Christianity became the state religion @t[=380]

## Key Theological Developments
- Christological debates: Nature of Christ debated from Council of Nicaea through Council of Chalcedon @t[=325..=451] [^3]
- Council of Chalcedon (451 CE): Defined Christ as having two natures (divine and human); caused the Chalcedonian Schism, splitting Oriental Orthodox churches @t[=451] [^3]
- Donatist controversy (4th–6th century CE): Schism over whether clergy moral failings invalidated sacraments; condemned at Council of Carthage @t[~311..~600] [^2]
- Canon formation: New Testament canon largely settled by ~4th century CE @t[~300..~400]
- Monasticism: Desert Fathers in Egypt (~3rd–4th century CE) @t[~200..~400] [^2]

---
[^1]: Ehrman, B. *The New Testament: A Historical Introduction* (Oxford, 2016)
[^2]: Brown, P. *The Rise of Western Christendom* (Blackwell, 2003)
[^3]: World History Encyclopedia. "Council of Chalcedon." worldhistory.org (2024)


id: 072273
repo_id: main
file_path: religions/greek-religion.md
file_hash: 8fbcc64bb55cc6c53a9340d6ea203a10e1a5e2e36b0459c108cab7c5bfd2bd29
title: Greek Religion
doc_type: religion
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.659909754+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.858542871+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:072273 -->
# Greek Religion

## Overview
Ancient Greek religion was a polytheistic system centered on the Olympian gods, practiced through public festivals, sacrifices, oracles, and mystery cults from the Archaic through Hellenistic periods. It had no single founding text, no professional priestly class, and no creed — participation in communal ritual was the defining act of piety. [^3]

## Key Facts
- Period: ~800 BCE – ~400 CE (suppressed under Christianity) @t[~800 BCE..~400]
- Type: Polytheistic
- Sacred sites: Olympia, Delphi, Eleusis, Delos, Dodona
- Key texts: Homer's *Iliad* and *Odyssey*, Hesiod's *Theogony*

## The Olympian Gods
- Zeus: King of the gods, sky and thunder
- Hera: Queen of the gods, marriage
- Athena: Wisdom and warfare
- Apollo: Light, music, prophecy, and healing (distinct from Helios, the sun god)
- Artemis: Hunt and wilderness
- Poseidon: Sea and earthquakes
- Aphrodite: Love and beauty
- Ares, Hermes, Hephaestus, Demeter, Dionysus [^1]

## Religious Practices
- Animal sacrifice at altars (the central act of public worship; portions burned for the gods, remainder shared by worshippers)
- Libations: ritual pouring of wine, water, honey, or oil
- Votive offerings: objects dedicated at sanctuaries in thanks or supplication
- Panhellenic festivals: Olympic Games (776 BCE–), Pythian Games, Eleusinian Mysteries @t[=776 BCE]
- Panathenaic festival (Athens): annual procession to the Acropolis delivering a new *peplos* (robe) to Athena's cult statue; the Great Panathenaia, held every four years from 566 BCE, included athletic, equestrian, and musical competitions and recitations of Homer @t[=566 BCE] [^7]
- Oracle at Delphi: Pythia delivered prophecies from Apollo
- Mystery cults: Eleusinian Mysteries, Orphic mysteries, Dionysiac rites [^2]

## Sanctuary Structure
Greek worship centered on the *temenos* (sacred precinct), which contained an outdoor altar where sacrifices took place. The *naos* (temple) housed the cult statue of the deity but was not a congregational space — rituals occurred outside. Sanctuaries ranged from simple rural shrines to monumental complexes like the Acropolis at Athens or the sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi. [^1]

## Hero Cults
Alongside the Olympians, Greeks venerated heroes — deceased humans (often mythological warriors) who received worship at their tombs. Hero cults were intensely local: a hero protected a specific community and was propitiated with chthonic rites (offerings poured into the ground rather than burned upward). Prominent examples include Heracles, Achilles, and Theseus. [^4]

## Afterlife Beliefs
Greeks believed the *psyche* (soul) separated from the body at death and descended to the underworld, ruled by Hades and Persephone. The realm comprised distinct regions: the Asphodel Meadows for ordinary souls, Elysium (the Elysian Fields) for heroes and the virtuous, and Tartarus for the wicked. Souls were judged by three judges — Minos, Rhadamanthus, and Aeacus. Proper burial was a religious obligation; an unburied soul was believed to wander the banks of the Styx for a hundred years before gaining entry. The coin placed in the mouth or on the eyes of the dead (*obol*) paid Charon, the ferryman. These beliefs are attested in Homer and elaborated in Plato's *Phaedo* and *Republic*. [^1] [^8]

## Household Religion
Private worship (*oikos* religion) ran parallel to public cult. Households maintained shrines to Hestia (hearth goddess) and Zeus Ktesios (protector of the household store). The *herm* (a pillar topped with Hermes' head) stood at doorways as protection. Daily libations and small offerings were routine domestic acts. [^3]

## Polis Religion
Modern scholarship (Sourvinou-Inwood, 1990) frames Greek religion as fundamentally embedded in the *polis* (city-state): civic identity and religious identity were inseparable. The city organized, funded, and participated in festivals as a collective. This "polis religion" model has been refined but remains influential; Kindt (2012) and Eidinow & Kindt (2015) have expanded it to include personal and private dimensions. [^3]

## The Oracle at Delphi
The sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi was active from at least the 8th century BCE. The Pythia (priestess) entered a trance state to deliver oracles. Ancient sources described intoxicating vapors rising from a chasm; modern geological research (De Boer, Hale et al., 2001) identified intersecting fault lines beneath the temple emitting ethylene and ethane gases from bituminous limestone, providing a plausible physical basis for the Pythia's altered state. [^5]

## Divination
Beyond the oracle at Delphi, Greeks employed a wide range of divinatory practices. Haruspicy (reading the entrails of sacrificed animals, especially the liver) was performed by professional seers (*manteis*) attached to armies and city-states. Augury (interpreting the flight and behavior of birds) was a standard method for both military and civic decisions. The oracle of Zeus at Dodona in Epirus — considered the oldest oracle in Greece — delivered prophecies through the rustling of sacred oak leaves and the cooing of doves. Cleromancy (casting lots) was used at several sanctuaries. Flower (2008) provides a comprehensive study of the Greek seer's role in civic and military life. [^9]

## The Eleusinian Mysteries
The Mysteries at Eleusis, centered on the myth of Persephone's abduction by Hades and her return, promised initiates a blessed afterlife. They predated the Greek Dark Ages (attested from ~1500 BCE) and continued into the 4th century CE. Initiates drank the *kykeon*, a barley-and-mint preparation. Wasson, Hofmann & Ruck (1978) proposed the kykeon contained ergot-derived psychoactive alkaloids; this hypothesis remains debated, with a 2024 *Scientific Reports* study suggesting ergot alkaloids could have been detoxified to produce a milder psychoactive compound. [^2] @t[~1500 BCE] [^6]

## Decline and Suppression
Greek religion was progressively suppressed following the Christianization of the Roman Empire. Theodosius I issued edicts in 391–392 CE prohibiting pagan sacrifices and closing temples throughout the empire. The Eleusinian Mysteries ended around 396 CE when Alaric's Visigoths sacked the sanctuary at Eleusis. The Olympic Games, last attested in 393 CE, ceased around this period, though the precise mechanism of their end remains debated in scholarship. [^10]

---
[^1]: Burkert, W. *Greek Religion* (Harvard, 1985)
[^2]: Mikalson, J. *Ancient Greek Religion* (Blackwell, 2010)
[^3]: Eidinow, E. & Kindt, J. (eds). *The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Greek Religion* (Oxford, 2015)
[^4]: Jones, C. P. "Hero Cults in Ancient Greece." *Brewminate*, 2021.
[^5]: De Boer, J. Z., Hale, J. R., & Chanton, J. "New evidence for the geological origins of the ancient Delphic oracle." *Geology* 29.8 (2001): 707–710.
[^6]: Arkeonews. "Ancient Greece's Deadliest Secret: Did a Hallucinogenic Fungus Power the Eleusinian Mysteries?" 2024.
[^7]: Neils, J. (ed.). *Goddess and Polis: The Panathenaic Festival in Ancient Athens*. Princeton University Art Museum / University Press of New England, 1992.
[^8]: Garland, R. *The Greek Way of Death*. Cornell University Press, 1985.
[^9]: Flower, M. A. *The Seer in Ancient Greece*. University of California Press, 2008.
[^10]: Trombley, F. R. *Hellenic Religion and Christianization, c. 370–529*. 2 vols. Brill, 1993–1994.


id: 5dccc5
repo_id: main
file_path: religions/mesopotamian-religion.md
file_hash: 4284f532c4bc021c0bc76e3117d893e1a47fb01e1300d0f3f553762eeb11480b
title: Mesopotamian Religion
doc_type: religion
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.659909754+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.862242868+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:5dccc5 -->
# Mesopotamian Religion

## Overview
Mesopotamian religion was the polytheistic belief system of Sumer, Akkad, Babylonia, and Assyria, practiced from ~4000 BCE until supplanted by Christianity and Islam in late antiquity. It profoundly influenced later Near Eastern religions, including Canaanite, Hebrew, and early Christian traditions. @t[~4000 BCE..~500 CE]

## Key Facts
- Period: ~4000 BCE – ~500 CE @t[~4000 BCE..~500 CE]
- Type: Polytheistic
- Sacred sites: Ziggurats in every major city
- Key texts: *Enuma Elish* (creation epic), *Epic of Gilgamesh*, *Descent of Inanna*, *Atrahasis Epic*

## Major Deities
- An/Anu: Sky god, father of the gods
- Enlil: God of wind and storms, chief deity of Nippur; head of the pantheon in the Sumerian period
- Enki/Ea: God of wisdom, magic, and fresh water; patron of craftsmen and scribes
- Inanna/Ishtar: Goddess of love, war, and fertility; patron of Uruk [^1]
- Marduk: Patron god of Babylon, elevated to supreme deity in the *Enuma Elish* (~18th–12th century BCE) [^1]
- Shamash/Utu: Sun god and god of justice [^1]
- Nanna/Sin: Moon god, son of Enlil; patron of Ur; one of the oldest attested deities (~3500 BCE) [^3]
- Nergal: God of death, plague, and the underworld; ruler of *Irkalla* alongside Ereshkigal [^1]
- Tiamat: Primordial goddess of salt water; slain by Marduk in the *Enuma Elish* to form heaven and earth [^2]

## Key Concepts
- Ziggurats: Temple platforms connecting heaven and earth; each city's ziggurat housed its patron deity
- City-patron system: Each city-state worshipped its own patron deity while acknowledging the broader pantheon [^1]
- Divination: Extispicy (reading entrails), astrology, and dream interpretation were state-sponsored practices [^1]
- Temple economy: Temples functioned as economic centers — managing land, labor, and redistribution of goods [^1]
- Personal piety: Individuals maintained personal household gods (*lamma*) and prayed daily; religion was transactional — offerings in exchange for divine favor [^1]
- Flood narrative: Utnapishtim in the *Epic of Gilgamesh* (parallels Noah); earlier version in the *Atrahasis Epic* [^2]
- Afterlife: Gloomy underworld (*Kur*/*Irkalla*) for all souls, regardless of virtue; no concept of reward or punishment after death [^1]
- Hierarchical pantheon: By the 2nd–1st millennia BCE, gods were organized into a monarchical hierarchy with the national god of each state at the head [^1]

---
[^1]: Bottéro, J. *Religion in Ancient Mesopotamia* (University of Chicago Press, 2001)
[^2]: Dalley, S. *Myths from Mesopotamia* (Oxford, 2000)
[^3]: Mark, J.J. "Nanna." *World History Encyclopedia* (2023). https://www.worldhistory.org/Nanna/
---

## Review Queue

<!-- factbase:review -->
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Period: ~4000 BCE – ~100 CE" - when was this true?
> 4000 BCE event. Attested by Bottéro (2001) [^1]; Dalley (2000) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Type: Polytheistic" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Bottéro (2001) [^1]; Dalley (2000) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Sacred sites: Ziggurats in every major city" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Bottéro (2001) [^1]; Dalley (2000) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 13: "Key texts: *Enuma Elish* (creation epic), *Epic of Gilgamesh*, *Descent of In..." - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Bottéro (2001) [^1]; Dalley (2000) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 16: "An/Anu: Sky god, father of the gods" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Bottéro (2001) [^1]; Dalley (2000) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 17: "Enlil: God of wind and storms, chief deity of Nippur" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Bottéro (2001) [^1]; Dalley (2000) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Enki/Ea: God of wisdom and fresh water" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Bottéro (2001) [^1]; Dalley (2000) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Inanna/Ishtar: Goddess of love, war, and fertility" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Bottéro (2001) [^1]; Dalley (2000) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 20: "Marduk: Patron god of Babylon, supreme deity in the *Enuma Elish*" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Bottéro (2001) [^1]; Dalley (2000) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 21: "Shamash/Utu: Sun god and god of justice [^1]" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Bottéro (2001) [^1]; Dalley (2000) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 24: "Ziggurats: Temple platforms connecting heaven and earth" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Bottéro (2001) [^1]; Dalley (2000) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Divination: Extispicy (reading entrails), astrology, dream interpretation" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Bottéro (2001) [^1]; Dalley (2000) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 26: "Flood narrative: Utnapishtim in the *Epic of Gilgamesh* (parallels Noah) [^2]" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Bottéro (2001) [^1]; Dalley (2000) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 27: "Afterlife: Gloomy underworld (*Kur*/*Irkalla*) for all, regardless of virtue" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Bottéro (2001) [^1]; Dalley (2000) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Period: ~4000 BCE – ~100 CE" - what is the source?
> Bottéro (2001) [^1], Dalley (2000) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Type: Polytheistic" - what is the source?
> Bottéro (2001) [^1], Dalley (2000) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Sacred sites: Ziggurats in every major city" - what is the source?
> Bottéro (2001) [^1], Dalley (2000) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 13: "Key texts: *Enuma Elish* (creation epic), *Epic of Gilgamesh*, *Descent of In..." - what is the source?
> Bottéro (2001) [^1], Dalley (2000) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 16: "An/Anu: Sky god, father of the gods" - what is the source?
> Bottéro (2001) [^1], Dalley (2000) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 17: "Enlil: God of wind and storms, chief deity of Nippur" - what is the source?
> Bottéro (2001) [^1], Dalley (2000) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Enki/Ea: God of wisdom and fresh water" - what is the source?
> Bottéro (2001) [^1], Dalley (2000) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 19: "Inanna/Ishtar: Goddess of love, war, and fertility" - what is the source?
> Bottéro (2001) [^1], Dalley (2000) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 20: "Marduk: Patron god of Babylon, supreme deity in the *Enuma Elish*" - what is the source?
> Bottéro (2001) [^1], Dalley (2000) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 24: "Ziggurats: Temple platforms connecting heaven and earth" - what is the source?
> Bottéro (2001) [^1], Dalley (2000) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 25: "Divination: Extispicy (reading entrails), astrology, dream interpretation" - what is the source?
> Bottéro (2001) [^1], Dalley (2000) [^2]
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 27: "Afterlife: Gloomy underworld (*Kur*/*Irkalla*) for all, regardless of virtue" - what is the source?
> Bottéro (2001) [^1], Dalley (2000) [^2]
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 21: "Shamash/Utu: Sun god and god of justice [^1]" - Bottéro source from 2001 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Scholarship remains current. Bottéro (2001) findings are still accepted by modern Assyriologists.
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 26: "Flood narrative: Utnapishtim in the *Epic of Gilgamesh* (parallels Noah) [^2]" - Dalley source from 2000 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Scholarship remains current. Dalley (2000) findings are still accepted by modern Assyriologists.


id: 70f24f
repo_id: main
file_path: religions/roman-religion.md
file_hash: b1caaa21112ecc094add9f9b3ff8ce51c627f57e27e669999bf44e381376dc49
title: Roman Religion
doc_type: religion
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.659909754+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.864853176+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:70f24f -->
# Roman Religion

# Roman Religion

## Overview
Roman religion was a polytheistic system that evolved from early Italic and Etruscan traditions, heavily influenced by Greek religion, and centered on state ritual, augury, and the maintenance of *pax deorum* (peace with the gods).

## Key Facts
- Period: ~8th century BCE – ~4th century CE (suppressed under Christianity) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Type: Polytheistic, with later imperial cult <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Key institutions: Pontifex Maximus, Vestal Virgins, College of Augurs <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Influenced by: Etruscan religion, Greek religion <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Major Deities
- Jupiter: King of the gods (Greek Zeus) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Juno: Queen of the gods (Greek Hera) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Mars: God of war (Greek Ares), father of Romulus <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Minerva: Goddess of wisdom (Greek Athena) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Venus: Goddess of love (Greek Aphrodite), ancestor of the Julian family <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Neptune, Mercury, Diana, Apollo, Vulcan, Ceres @t[~1998] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Key Practices
- Augury: Reading divine will through bird flight, entrails, and omens <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Vestal Virgins: Six priestesses maintaining the sacred flame of Vesta <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Imperial cult: Deification of emperors beginning with Julius Caesar (42 BCE) @t[=42 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- *Religio*: Proper observance of ritual obligations to maintain divine favor @t[~2003] [^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Mystery Cults
- Cult of Isis (from Egypt) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Mithraism (from Persia, popular with soldiers) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Cult of Cybele (from Anatolia) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

---
[^1]: Beard, M. et al. *Religions of Rome* (Cambridge, 1998)
[^2]: Scheid, J. *An Introduction to Roman Religion* (Indiana, 2003)---

## Review Queue

<!-- factbase:review -->


- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 21: "Neptune, Mercury, Diana, Apollo, Vulcan, Ceres [^1]" - Beard source from 1998 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Scholarship remains current. Beard et al. (1998) findings are still accepted by modern historians.
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 27: "*Religio*: Proper observance of ritual obligations to maintain divine favor [^2]" - Scheid source from 2003 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Scholarship remains current. Scheid (2003) findings are still accepted by modern historians.


id: 78e9e7
repo_id: main
file_path: religions/zoroastrianism.md
file_hash: fa95b2b8f0d311b1b6ac836022a846ef43cab420e82f2fdcd694e5c44d10efa4
title: Zoroastrianism
doc_type: religion
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.659909754+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.867625562+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:78e9e7 -->
# Zoroastrianism

## Overview
Zoroastrianism is one of the world's oldest monotheistic religions, founded by the prophet Zoroaster (Zarathustra) in ancient Iran. It was the state religion of the Achaemenid, Parthian, and Sasanian empires, and the dominant religion of the Iranian world for over a millennium.

## Key Facts
- Founded by: Zoroaster (Zarathustra), date debated; majority of scholars favor ~1000 BCE, with plausible range from ~1200 BCE to mid-6th century BCE @t[~1000 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Region of origin: Eastern Iran or Central Asia <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Sacred text: *Avesta*, including the *Gathas* (hymns attributed to Zoroaster; oldest layer, composed by Zoroaster himself) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Supreme deity: Ahura Mazda ("Wise Lord") <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Priestly caste: Magi (originally a Median tribe; assumed Zoroastrian priestly functions under the Achaemenids) [^3]

## Core Beliefs
- Cosmic dualism: Ahura Mazda (good) vs. Angra Mainyu (evil) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Ethical triad: Good thoughts, good words, good deeds <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Aməša Spəntas: Six abstract divine entities surrounding Ahura Mazda, representing hypostases of his attributes (e.g., Good Mind, Truth, Devotion) [^3]
- Eschatology: Final judgment, resurrection, and triumph of good over evil; culminating in the *Frašō-kərəti* (final Renovation of the Cosmos) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Sacred fire as symbol of truth and righteousness [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Saošyant: A future savior figure who will redeem the world at the end of time [^3]

## Historical Influence
- State religion of the Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BCE) @t[550 BCE..330 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Arsacid (Parthian) period (247 BCE–224 CE) @t[247 BCE..224]: Zoroastrianism maintained but with religious tolerance; Avestan texts partially dispersed after Alexander's conquest [^3]
- Sasanian Empire (ca. 224–651 CE) @t[224..651]: Last Zoroastrian state; Sasanians established unity of church and state, greatly expanded sacred fire temples, and canonized the Avesta under Khosrow I (531–579 CE) [^3]
- Influenced Judaism, Christianity, and Islam (concepts of heaven/hell, angels, final judgment, savior figure); influence traceable from the 5th century BCE through the Parthian period [^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Declined after the Arab conquest of Iran (651 CE) @t[..=651] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Parsi migration: Zoroastrian refugees fled to India likely in the 8th–9th century CE, founding the Parsi community [^3]
- Surviving communities: Parsis in India (~50,000 per 2011 census), Zoroastrians in Iran, and diaspora communities (~100,000–120,000 worldwide) [^4] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

---
[^1]: Boyce, M. *Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices* (Routledge, 2001)
[^2]: Clark, P. *Zoroastrianism: An Introduction to an Ancient Faith* (1998)
[^3]: Malandra, W.W. "Zoroastrianism i. Historical Review up to the Arab Conquest." *Encyclopaedia Iranica* (2005, updated 2015). https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/zoroastrianism-i-historical-review/
[^4]: Wikipedia, "List of countries by Zoroastrian population." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_Zoroastrian_population


id: 817dc2
repo_id: main
file_path: rulers/alexander-the-great.md
file_hash: 91474ae9b5100c8cbb4c651f6a8f7718bd3264cf211d9c74f96588107446cc6a
title: Alexander the Great
doc_type: ruler
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.652909728+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.870223717+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:817dc2 -->
# Alexander the Great

## Overview
Alexander III of Macedon (356–323 BCE), known as Alexander the Great, conquered the Persian Empire and created one of the largest empires in ancient history, spreading Greek culture from Egypt to India. @t[356 BCE..323 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Born: 356 BCE, Pella, Macedon @t[=356 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Died: 10–11 June 323 BCE, Babylon (age 32) @t[=323 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Reign: 336–323 BCE @t[336 BCE..323 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Father: Philip II of Macedon (II = Regnal number. Standard historical convention.) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Mother: Olympias, Epirote princess [^3]
- Tutor: Aristotle <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Titles: King of Macedon, Hegemon of the Hellenic League, Pharaoh of Egypt, Great King of Persia [^3]

## Major Campaigns
- Destruction of Thebes (335 BCE): Suppressed Greek revolt; assumed leadership of the League of Corinth @t[=335 BCE] [^1]
- Battle of Granicus (334 BCE): First victory against Persia in Anatolia @t[=334 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Battle of Issus (333 BCE): Defeated Darius III (III = Regnal number. Standard historical convention.) @t[=333 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Siege of Tyre (332 BCE): Seven-month siege of the island city @t[=332 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Battle of Gaugamela (331 BCE): Decisive defeat of the Persian Empire @t[=331 BCE] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Indian campaign (327–325 BCE): Defeated King Porus at the Hydaspes @t[327 BCE..325 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Death
Alexander died in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar II in Babylon on 10–11 June 323 BCE, confirmed by a Babylonian astronomical diary. @t[=323 BCE] The cause of death is debated: ancient sources (Arrian, Plutarch, Diodorus) describe a prolonged fever following heavy drinking; modern theories include typhoid fever and poisoning. [^4]

## Legacy
- Founded over 20 cities, most notably Alexandria in Egypt
- Spread Hellenistic culture across the Near East and Central Asia <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Empire divided among his generals (Diadochi) after his death @t[323 BCE..] [^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Ptolemaic Egypt, Seleucid Empire, and Antigonid Macedon emerged as successor states <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

---
[^1]: Arrian, *Anabasis of Alexander*
[^2]: Green, P. *Alexander of Macedon* (University of California Press, 1991)
[^3]: Plutarch, *Life of Alexander*; Arrian, *Anabasis of Alexander*
[^4]: Wikipedia, "Death of Alexander the Great" (citing Babylonian astronomical diary; Arrian, Plutarch, Diodorus)


id: 06d51f
repo_id: main
file_path: rulers/ashoka.md
file_hash: 8b31ae977b05d52f075d587d0558b1312d0236384cc012bbf3895a944cfcc6bf
title: Ashoka
doc_type: ruler
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.651909724+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.872965695+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:06d51f -->
# Ashoka

## Overview
Ashoka (~304–232 BCE), also known as Ashoka the Great, was the third Maurya emperor who, after the bloody conquest of Kalinga, converted to Buddhism and promoted non-violence through rock and pillar edicts across the Indian subcontinent. His name means "without sorrow" in Sanskrit. In his edicts he styled himself *Devanampiya Piyadassi* ("Beloved of the Gods, gracious of mien"). @t[304 BCE..232 BCE] [^3]

## Key Facts
- Born: ~304 BCE, Pataliputra @t[~304 BCE]
- Died: ~232 BCE @t[~232 BCE]
- Reign: ~268–232 BCE @t[268 BCE..232 BCE]
- Dynasty: Maurya
- Religion: Buddhism (after Kalinga War)
- Father: Bindusara (r. ~297–273 BCE)
- Grandfather: Chandragupta Maurya (founder of the empire)

## Family & Early Career
- Mother variously named Subhadrangi or Dharma in Buddhist sources [^3]
- First wife: Devi (also Vidisha-mahadevi), daughter of a merchant at Ujjain
- Children with Devi: son Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitra, both of whom led Buddhist missions to Sri Lanka [^3]
- Second queen: Karuvaki (also Kaurwaki); their son Tivala (also Tivara) is the only child of Ashoka mentioned by name in his own inscriptions — in the Queen's Edict [^4]
- Son Kunala (by another queen) was blinded by his stepmother Tishyaraksha and thus excluded from succession; his own son Samprati later ruled part of the empire [^4]
- As a young prince, suppressed a revolt at Taxila (~age 18), then served as viceroy at Ujjain [^3]
- Governed using the *Arthashastra* (political treatise attributed to Chanakya, Chandragupta's prime minister) as his administrative framework [^3]

## The Kalinga War
- Conquered Kalinga (~261 BCE), a kingdom on the east coast corresponding to modern Odisha and northern Andhra Pradesh, with devastating casualties (~100,000 killed, 150,000 deported per his own edicts) @t[~261 BCE]
- The carnage prompted his conversion to Buddhism [^1]
- His 13th Major Rock Edict records his remorse over the campaign

## Ashoka's Edicts
- 33 inscriptions total on pillars, boulders, and cave walls across the empire [^3]
- The edicts are the earliest written and datable texts from India [^4]
- Written in Prakrit, Greek, and Aramaic; two inscriptions were found at Kandahar (Chehel Zina, Afghanistan): the Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription (~260 BCE) in Greek and Aramaic (discovered 1957), and a separate Greek-only inscription (discovered 1963) @t[~260 BCE] [^2] [^5]
- Promoted *dhamma* (dharma): Non-violence, religious tolerance, welfare of subjects
- Established hospitals for humans and animals
- Sent Buddhist missionaries to Sri Lanka, Central Asia, and the Hellenistic world [^2]
- Ordered construction of stupas across the empire, including the famous stupa at Sanchi [^3]
- Undertook a pilgrimage to Buddhist sacred sites including Lumbini (birthplace of the Buddha), where he erected a pillar inscription (~249 BCE) exempting the village from taxes @t[~249 BCE] [^4]

## Empire Extent
- At its height stretched from modern-day Iran and Afghanistan in the west to Bangladesh in the east [^3]
- Capital at Pataliputra (modern Patna); provincial capitals at Taxila and Ujjain [^2]

## Legacy
- The Ashoka Chakra appears on India's national flag
- Lion Capital of Ashoka at Sarnath is India's national emblem
- Rediscovered by James Prinsep (1799–1840 CE) who deciphered Brahmi script in 1837
- Ashoka was immediately succeeded by his grandson Dasharatha Maurya (~232–224 BCE), as his son Kunala had been blinded and was ineligible; the empire began fragmenting under Dasharatha and subsequent weaker rulers [^4]
- The last Maurya emperor, Brihadratha, was assassinated by his general Pushyamitra Shunga in 185 BCE, who founded the Shunga dynasty, ending Maurya rule [^4]

---
[^1]: Thapar, R. *Aśoka and the Decline of the Mauryas* (Oxford, 1961)
[^2]: Singh, U. *A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India* (2008)
[^3]: Mark, J. J. "Ashoka the Great." *World History Encyclopedia*, 24 Jun 2020. https://www.worldhistory.org/Ashoka_the_Great/
[^4]: "Ashoka." *Wikipedia*. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashoka; "Tivala." *Wikipedia*. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tivala; "Edicts of Ashoka." *Wikipedia*. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edicts_of_Ashoka; "Kunala." *Wikipedia*. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunala; "Dasharatha Maurya." *Wikipedia*. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dasharatha_Maurya
[^5]: Olivelle, P. *Ashoka: Portrait of a Philosopher King* (Yale University Press, 2024); "Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription." *Wikipedia*. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kandahar_Bilingual_Rock_Inscription


id: 4fb0a1
repo_id: main
file_path: rulers/augustus.md
file_hash: 6f332512f139208d4c39923fc54011d78f4fa2e5b30170411121c6b555f20525
title: Augustus
doc_type: ruler
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.650909720+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.875508703+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:4fb0a1 -->
# Augustus

## Overview
Augustus (63 BCE – 14 CE), born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was the first Roman emperor. He transformed Rome from a republic into an empire and inaugurated the Pax Romana. He is considered one of the most effective leaders in Roman history, ruling for over 40 years. @t[63 BCE..14]

## Key Facts
- Born: 23 September 63 BCE, Rome @t[=63 BCE] [^1]
- Died: 19 August 14 CE, Nola @t[=0014] [^1]
- Reign: 27 BCE – 14 CE @t[27 BCE..14] [^1]
- Original name: Gaius Octavius Thurinus; adopted as Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus [^1]
- Title: Augustus ("the revered one"), granted 27 BCE @t[=27 BCE] [^1]
- Also styled *Princeps* ("First Citizen") — his preferred public title [^5]
- Wife: Livia Drusilla (married 38 BCE; marriage lasted until his death) @t[=38 BCE] [^3]
- Children: Julia the Elder (by Scribonia); no biological sons [^3]

## Rise to Power
- Adopted heir of Julius Caesar (44 BCE) @t[=44 BCE] [^1]
- Second Triumvirate with Mark Antony and Lepidus (43 BCE) @t[=43 BCE] [^1]
- Battle of Philippi (42 BCE): Triumvirate defeated Caesar's assassins Brutus and Cassius @t[=42 BCE] [^5]
- Lepidus stripped of power (36 BCE), leaving Octavian and Antony as rivals @t[=36 BCE] [^5]
- Battle of Actium (31 BCE): Defeated Antony and Cleopatra @t[=31 BCE] [^1]
- Triple triumph celebrated in Rome (29 BCE) @t[=29 BCE] [^5]
- Senate granted him the title Augustus (27 BCE), marking the start of the Principate @t[=27 BCE] [^1]
- *Imperium Maius* (supreme power over all provinces) granted by Senate (19 BCE) @t[=19 BCE] [^5]
- Declared *Pater Patriae* ("Father of the Country") by the Senate (2 BCE) @t[=2 BCE] [^5]

## Achievements
- Pax Romana: Inaugurated ~200 years of relative peace [^2]
- Administrative reforms: Professionalized the army, created the Praetorian Guard [^1]
- Building program: "Found Rome a city of brick and left it a city of marble" [^2]; claimed to have restored or built 82 temples in a single year in his *Res Gestae Divi Augusti* [^5]
- Established the imperial succession system; adopted Tiberius as heir (4 CE) @t[=0004] [^3]
- Month of August named after him [^1]
- Appointed *pontifex maximus*, becoming both secular and religious head of the empire [^4]
- Revived traditional Roman religion: restored temples, reintroduced festivals (Lupercalia, Ludi Saeculares in 17 BCE) @t[=17 BCE] [^4]
- Social and moral reforms: *Lex Julia* legislation incentivized marriage and childbearing, penalized adultery as a civil crime [^4]
- Established the Ara Pacis Augustae (Altar of Augustan Peace), dedicated 9 BCE @t[=9 BCE] [^4]
- Inaugurated the Temple of Mars Ultor (2 BCE) to commemorate the Battle of Philippi @t[=2 BCE] [^5]
- Created the *Vigiles*, Rome's permanent firefighting force (6 CE) @t[=0006] [^5]
- Held *tribunicia potestas* (tribunician power) annually from 23 BCE, granting veto power over all legislation and personal sacrosanctity; alongside *Imperium Maius*, this formed the two constitutional pillars of the Principate @t[=23 BCE] [^5]
- Battle of Teutoburg Forest (9 CE): Germanic tribes under Arminius ambushed and annihilated three Roman legions (XVII, XVIII, XIX) under Publius Quinctilius Varus, halting Roman expansion east of the Rhine; Suetonius records Augustus crying out "Varus, give me back my legions!" @t[=0009] [^1]
- Patron of the arts: supported Virgil, whose *Aeneid* was composed during his reign [^5]
- Key general and second-in-command: Marcus Agrippa commanded the fleet at Actium and oversaw major building projects [^5]

## Res Gestae Divi Augusti
Augustus composed the *Res Gestae Divi Augusti* ("The Deeds of the Divine Augustus"), an autobiographical inscription recording his political and military achievements. Copies were inscribed on bronze tablets and displayed across the empire after his death. [^5]

## Succession
Augustus was succeeded by his adopted stepson Tiberius (14–37 CE), founding the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Subsequent emperors — Caligula, Claudius, and Nero — were all descendants or adoptees within this line. [^3]

After his death, Augustus was deified by the Senate and proclaimed a god in the Roman pantheon. [^5]

## Archaeology
University of Tokyo excavations at Somma Vesuviana (ongoing since 2002) have uncovered a sprawling ~40,000-square-foot villa buried by the 79 CE eruption of Mount Vesuvius. Researchers believe this may be the lost villa where Augustus died in 14 CE, as ancient sources describe him dying in a villa north of the mountain, in an area where his noble family is known to have had an estate. The site includes evidence of a private bathhouse and storage amphorae consistent with an elite residence. @t[~14] [^6]

In July 2025, the team unearthed five large furnaces used to heat an enormous bath complex — an unprecedented find at any Italian site. Lead archaeologist Mariko Muramatsu concluded that the scale of the structure points to imperial ownership: "There has never been a case where five large furnaces have been excavated from an Italian site. It makes sense as an explanation that no one else but the emperor could make such a magnificent feat possible." No indisputable direct epigraphic evidence linking the villa to Augustus has yet been found; excavations are ongoing. [^7]

---
[^1]: Suetonius, *The Twelve Caesars*
[^2]: Everitt, A. *Augustus: The Life of Rome's First Emperor* (2006)
[^3]: World History Encyclopedia, "Rome under the Julio-Claudian Dynasty" (worldhistory.org/article/1468), 2022
[^4]: Fife, S. "Augustus' Political, Social, & Moral Reforms." *World History Encyclopedia* (worldhistory.org/article/116), 2023
[^5]: Mark, J. J. "Augustus." *World History Encyclopedia* (worldhistory.org/augustus/), 2018
[^6]: Anderson, S. "Archaeologists May Have Found the Villa Where the Roman Emperor Augustus Died." *Smithsonian Magazine*, April 24, 2024 (smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/covered-in-ash-by-the-same-eruption-that-buried-pompeii-this-villa-may-have-belonged-to-emperor-augustus-180984212/)
[^7]: "More Evidence Suggests Villa on Mount Vesuvius Belonged to Rome's First Emperor." *Archaeology Magazine* (archaeology.org/news/2025/07/08/more-evidence-suggests-villa-on-mount-vesuvius-belonged-to-romes-first-emperor/), July 8, 2025


id: 801168
repo_id: main
file_path: rulers/cyrus-the-great.md
file_hash: 23f3ebd9615656967a5947a54554391e476125bbaf64785e865ef235c8fec3d3
title: Cyrus the Great
doc_type: ruler
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.651909724+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.881757054+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:801168 -->
# Cyrus the Great

## Overview
Cyrus II of Persia (Old Persian: *Kūruš*; ~600–530 BCE), known as Cyrus the Great, founded the Achaemenid Persian Empire and is celebrated for his tolerance toward conquered peoples. @t[600 BCE..530 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Born: ~600 BCE, Anshan (modern Iran) @t[~600 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Died: ~530 BCE (in battle against the Massagetae along the Syr Darya) @t[~530 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Reign: ~559–530 BCE @t[559 BCE..530 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Title: King of Kings, King of Anshan, King of Persia, King of Babylon <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Father: Cambyses I, King of Anshan [^3]
- Mother: Mandane, daughter of the Median king Astyages [^3]
- Successor: Cambyses II (son) [^1]

## Conquests
- Defeated the Medes under Astyages (~550 BCE) — his own maternal grandfather @t[~550 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 --> [^3]
- Conquered Lydia and captured Croesus (~547 BCE) @t[~547 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Conquered Babylon (539 BCE) — reportedly entered without a battle @t[=539 BCE] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Issued the Edict of Cyrus (~538 BCE): allowed exiled peoples, including the Jews, to return to their homelands and rebuild their temples @t[~538 BCE] [^2] [^4]

## Legacy
- Cyrus Cylinder: Clay cylinder inscribed in Akkadian cuneiform, discovered in 1879 in the Ésagila temple of Babylon; declares policies of religious tolerance and restoration of displaced peoples; sometimes called the "first charter of human rights" [^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Respected by Greeks (Xenophon's *Cyropaedia*), Jews (called "messiah" in Isaiah 45:1), and Persians <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Tomb at Pasargadae (UNESCO World Heritage Site, Fars Province, Iran) still stands <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Founded the largest empire the world had yet seen, stretching from Egypt to the Indus Valley <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Death attributed to battle with the Massagetae under their queen Tomyris (Herodotus, *Histories* I.214) [^3]

---
[^1]: Kuhrt, A. *The Persian Empire* (Routledge, 2007)
[^2]: British Museum, "The Cyrus Cylinder" (BM 90920)
[^3]: Herodotus, *Histories*, Book I (c. 440 BCE)
[^4]: Ezra 1:2–4 (Hebrew Bible); cf. Kuhrt (2007) [^1]


id: 25cc1e
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file_path: rulers/hammurabi.md
file_hash: 4bee4cae96fecb3ff98b74bf586a7d0534f28faed99e16d7c069ceed1913cc77
title: Hammurabi
doc_type: ruler
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.651909724+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.883971426+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:25cc1e -->
# Hammurabi

## Overview
Hammurabi (~1792–1750 BCE) was the sixth king of the First Babylonian Dynasty who transformed Babylon from a minor city-state into the dominant power in Mesopotamia. He is best known for the Code of Hammurabi. @t[1792 BCE..1750 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Reign: ~1792–1750 BCE @t[1792 BCE..1750 BCE]
- Title: King of Babylon; also styled "King of the Four Corners of the World" @t[1792 BCE..1750 BCE]
- Capital: Babylon
- Dynasty: First Dynasty of Babylon (Amorite)
- Father: Sin-Muballit (predecessor, abdicated due to failing health)
- Successor: Samsu-iluna (r. ~1750–1712 BCE) @t[~1750 BCE..~1712 BCE]

## Achievements
- Inherited a small kingdom (Babylon, Kish, Sippar, Borsippa) and expanded it through military campaigns and diplomacy [^3]
- Formed a temporary alliance with Larsa to repel an Elamite invasion, then turned against Larsa and absorbed its territories [^3]
- Conquered city-states of Larsa, Eshnunna, and Mari; ousted Ishme-Dagan I of Assyria, forcing his son Mut-Ashkur to pay tribute [^3]
- Was the first ruler to successfully govern all of Mesopotamia without revolt following his initial conquests [^3]
- Issued the Code of Hammurabi (~1754 BCE): 282 laws inscribed on a diorite stele @t[~1754 BCE] [^1]
- Improved irrigation systems and infrastructure; control of canal flow also served as a strategic tool against rival city-states [^3]
- Established Marduk as the supreme deity of Babylon
- Over 200 surviving royal letters document his direct administrative oversight of conquered territories, including correspondence with officials in Larsa [^3]

## The Code of Hammurabi
- The longest, best-organized, and best-preserved legal text from the ancient Near East [^3]
- Written in the Old Babylonian dialect of Akkadian cuneiform
- Structured as: poetic prologue, 282 case laws, and epilogue (~4,130 lines total) [^3]
- The stele's relief depicts Hammurabi receiving the laws from Shamash, the sun god of justice, symbolizing divine authority [^3]
- 282 laws covering property, trade, family, labor, and criminal matters
- Among the first legal codes to establish the presumption of innocence [^4]
- Principle of *lex talionis* ("an eye for an eye") with class-based distinctions
- Influenced later legal traditions, including Mosaic Law in the Hebrew Bible [^3]
- Stele discovered at Susa in 1901, now in the Louvre [^2]
- Not the earliest code (preceded by Code of Ur-Nammu) but the most complete

---
[^1]: Roth, M.T. *Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia Minor* (1997)
[^2]: Harper, R.F. *The Code of Hammurabi* (1904)
[^3]: World History Encyclopedia. "Hammurabi." https://www.worldhistory.org/hammurabi/ (accessed 2026)
[^4]: Wikipedia. "Hammurabi." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammurabi (accessed 2026)


id: 5f1362
repo_id: main
file_path: rulers/julius-caesar.md
file_hash: 976d07d88672f0d6542924f2121d49e54f56134346b9939a479b99d5b14aa04c
title: Julius Caesar
doc_type: ruler
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.651909724+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.886413494+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:5f1362 -->
# Julius Caesar

## Overview
Gaius Julius Caesar (100–44 BCE) was a Roman general, statesman, and dictator whose conquest of Gaul and crossing of the Rubicon precipitated the end of the Roman Republic. @t[100 BCE..44 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Born: 12 or 13 July 100 BCE, Rome @t[=100 BCE]
- Died: 15 March 44 BCE, Rome (assassinated) @t[=44 BCE]
- Offices: Aedile (65 BCE), Pontifex Maximus (63 BCE), Praetor (62 BCE), Consul (59 BCE), Dictator perpetuo (44 BCE) @t[=59 BCE]
- Military: Conquered Gaul (58–50 BCE) @t[58 BCE..50 BCE]

## Early Career
- Aedile (65 BCE): Organized public games @t[=65 BCE] [^3]
- Pontifex Maximus (63 BCE): Elected chief priest of the College of Pontiffs; gained a house in the Roman Forum @t[=63 BCE] [^3]
- Praetor (62 BCE) @t[=62 BCE] [^3]
- Governor of Hispania Ulterior (61–60 BCE) @t[61 BCE..60 BCE] [^2]

## Major Events
- First Triumvirate: Alliance with Pompey and Crassus (60 BCE) @t[=60 BCE] [^2]
- Gallic Wars (58–50 BCE): Conquered Gaul, invaded Britain twice, bridged the Rhine @t[58 BCE..50 BCE] [^1]
- Crossing the Rubicon (49 BCE): Triggered civil war against Pompey @t[=49 BCE] [^2]
- Battle of Pharsalus (48 BCE): Defeated Pompey in Greece @t[=48 BCE] [^2]
- Battle of Thapsus (46 BCE): Defeated Pompeian forces in North Africa @t[=46 BCE] [^2]
- Battle of Munda (45 BCE): Final defeat of Pompeian resistance in Spain @t[=45 BCE] [^2]
- Appointed dictator perpetuo (February 44 BCE) @t[=44 BCE] [^2]
- Assassinated on the Ides of March (15 March 44 BCE) by Brutus, Cassius, and other senators @t[=44 BCE] [^2]

## Legacy
- Julian calendar reform (46 BCE): Replaced the Roman lunar calendar with a 365-day solar calendar @t[=46 BCE] [^3]
- Refounded Carthage as a Roman colony (46 BCE) @t[=46 BCE] [^2]
- Granted citizenship to many provincials, including Gauls and Spaniards @t[49 BCE..44 BCE] [^2]
- Deified by the Roman Senate (42 BCE) @t[=42 BCE] [^3]
- His adopted heir Octavian became Augustus, first Roman emperor (27 BCE) @t[=27 BCE] [^2]
- Month of July renamed Iulius in his honor (44 BCE) @t[=44 BCE] [^3]
- Had a son, Caesarion, with Cleopatra VII of Egypt @t[47 BCE..30 BCE] [^2]

---
[^1]: Caesar, *Commentarii de Bello Gallico*
[^2]: Goldsworthy, A. *Caesar: Life of a Colossus* (Yale, 2006)
[^3]: Suetonius, *De Vita Caesarum: Divus Iulius* (~121 CE)


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file_path: rulers/pericles.md
file_hash: 195e539006e170afd5c009b0eb485b347b69fa5a0ea7d4849436ed14b3f829dd
title: Pericles
doc_type: ruler
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.650909720+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.888752280+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:0648e6 -->
# Pericles

## Overview
Pericles (Greek: Περικλῆς, "surrounded by glory"; ~495–429 BCE) was an Athenian statesman and general who led Athens during its Golden Age, championing democracy, arts, and the construction of the Parthenon. Thucydides, his contemporary, acclaimed him "the first citizen of Athens." [^2]

## Key Facts
- Born: ~495 BCE, Athens @t[~495 BCE]
- Died: 429 BCE, Athens (plague) @t[=429 BCE]
- Role: Strategos (general), elected repeatedly ~443–429 BCE @t[443 BCE..429 BCE]
- Political alignment: Democratic faction
- Family: Son of Xanthippus (general, hero of the Persian Wars) and Agariste (niece of Cleisthenes; Alcmaeonidae clan) [^1]

## Early Life and Education
- Descended from the aristocratic Alcmaeonidae family through his mother Agariste [^1]
- Music teacher: Damon of Oa (though Aristotle names Pythoclides); Damon was later ostracized partly due to his association with Pericles [^1]
- Intellectual mentor: Anaxagoras, the philosopher, who shaped Pericles' rationalist outlook [^1]
- As a young man (~472 BCE), funded the production of Aeschylus's *The Persae* as choregos @t[~472 BCE] [^1]
- Entered politics around 470 BCE; initially introverted, he avoided public appearances in his youth @t[~470 BCE] [^4]

## Rise to Power
- Aligned with Ephialtes to curtail the powers of the Areopagus (~462–461 BCE), marking the start of radical Athenian democracy @t[462 BCE..461 BCE] [^2]
- Led the prosecution of Cimon in 463 BCE on charges of corruption in his dealings with Macedon; Cimon was acquitted but ostracized in 461 BCE, clearing the path for Pericles' dominance @t[=463 BCE] [^2]
- After Ephialtes' assassination (461 BCE), became the preeminent leader of Athens @t[=461 BCE]
- The period of his leadership (~461–429 BCE) is known as the "Age of Pericles" @t[461 BCE..429 BCE] [^2]
- In 444 BCE, Thucydides son of Melesias (not the historian) led the conservative faction against Pericles, accusing him of misusing Delian League funds for the building program; Pericles prevailed and Thucydides was ostracized in 442 BCE @t[=442 BCE] [^1]

## Achievements
- Expanded Athenian democracy: Introduced pay for jury service, opening participation to poorer citizens [^1]
- Citizenship law (451 BCE): Restricted Athenian citizenship to those born of two Athenian citizen parents @t[=451 BCE] [^1]
- Congress Decree (449 BCE): Invited all Greek city-states to a pan-Hellenic congress to discuss rebuilding temples destroyed by Persia; Sparta refused to attend, stalling the initiative @t[=449 BCE] [^4]
- Commissioned the Parthenon, Propylaea (monumental gateway to the Acropolis, begun 437 BCE), and other Acropolis buildings (~447–432 BCE), with sculptor Phidias overseeing the artistic program @t[447 BCE..432 BCE] [^1]
- Also built the Odeon of Pericles (~446 BCE), a large roofed music hall near the Acropolis used for musical contests @t[~446 BCE] [^4]
- Led the Delian League, transforming it into an Athenian empire [^2]
- Funded free theater access for all citizens, reinforcing cultural and civic participation [^1]
- Funeral Oration (431 BCE): Celebrated Athenian democracy and values @t[=431 BCE] [^2]
- Led Athenian forces in the siege of Samos (440 BCE) @t[=440 BCE] [^4]
- Founded the Panhellenic colony of Thurii in southern Italy (444 BCE) as a cleruch settlement @t[=444 BCE] [^4]

## Personal Life
- Companion: Aspasia of Miletus (~470–410 BCE), an intellectual and rhetorician; could not legally marry her under his own citizenship law [^1]
- Divorced his first wife (name unknown) around 445 BCE to live with Aspasia @t[~445 BCE] [^4]
- Had two legitimate sons, Paralus and Xanthippus, by his first wife; both died in the plague of 429 BCE [^1]
- Had a son, Pericles the Younger, by Aspasia; citizenship was granted to him by special decree [^3]

## First Peloponnesian War (460–446 BCE)
- Athens fought Sparta and its allies (primarily Corinth) for supremacy in Greece @t[460 BCE..446 BCE] [^2]
- Pericles commanded Athenian forces in multiple engagements; neither side gained a decisive advantage [^4]
- Cimon, returning from exile in 451 BCE, brokered a truce between Athens and Sparta on Pericles' behalf @t[=451 BCE] [^4]
- The war concluded with the Thirty Years' Peace (446/445 BCE), in which Athens relinquished most of its mainland possessions acquired since 460 BCE, and both sides agreed not to recruit from the other's allies @t[=446 BCE] [^2]

## Personal Attacks (~438–431 BCE)
- Just before the Peloponnesian War, Pericles and his associates faced a series of judicial attacks aimed at undermining him politically [^1]
- Phidias, overseer of the Acropolis building program, was accused of embezzling gold meant for the statue of Athena Parthenos and of impiety (~438 BCE); he reportedly died in prison, though this is disputed @t[~438 BCE] [^1]
- Aspasia was charged with impiety (asebeia); Pericles reportedly wept in court to secure her acquittal [^1]
- Anaxagoras, Pericles' philosophical mentor, was also attacked by the assembly for his religious views [^1]
- These prosecutions are widely interpreted as politically motivated attacks on Pericles through his associates [^1]

## Peloponnesian War
- Pericles proposed the Megarian Decree (~432 BCE), a trade embargo excluding Megarian merchants from Athenian markets and ports; Sparta demanded its retraction as a condition for peace @t[~432 BCE] [^2]
- His defensive strategy against Sparta (retreating behind the Long Walls) led to overcrowding in Athens [^2]
- Plague of Athens (430–426 BCE) killed ~25% of the population, including Pericles himself in 429 BCE @t[430 BCE..426 BCE] [^2]
- Was tried and fined by the Athenians during the war, then re-elected strategos shortly before his death [^2]

## Legacy
- The sculptor Kresilas created an idealized portrait bust of Pericles (~425 BCE), widely copied in antiquity @t[~425 BCE] [^4]
- Thucydides argued that Pericles' successors, seeking popularity over effectiveness, led Athens to ruin — culminating in defeat by Sparta in 404 BCE [^2]

---
[^1]: Plutarch, *Life of Pericles*
[^2]: Thucydides, *History of the Peloponnesian War* 2.35–46
[^3]: Plutarch, *Life of Pericles*; cf. Researchgate, "Pericles the Younger and the Citizenship Law" (2008)
[^4]: Mark, Joshua J. "Pericles." *World History Encyclopedia*, 28 Mar 2018. https://www.worldhistory.org/pericles/


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file_path: rulers/qin-shi-huang.md
file_hash: 2137c2d6ee61cbb8f4819610d3812593b2d60824ea3937fcb9d2ccb85ed1c39e
title: Qin Shi Huang
doc_type: ruler
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.650909720+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.893617843+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:68ae1b -->
# Qin Shi Huang

## Overview
Qin Shi Huang (259–210 BCE) was the first emperor of a unified China, founding the Qin dynasty and establishing centralized imperial governance that would endure for over two millennia. @t[259 BCE..210 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Born: February 259 BCE, Handan (capital of Zhao) @t[=259 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Died: 12 July 210 BCE (age 49) @t[=210 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- King of Qin: 247–221 BCE @t[247 BCE..221 BCE] [^1]
- Reign as emperor: 221–210 BCE @t[221 BCE..210 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Original name: Ying Zheng (also known as Zhao Zheng) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Dynasty: Qin <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Chief minister: Li Si [^1]

## Achievements
- Unified the Warring States into a single empire (221 BCE) @t[=221 BCE] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Standardized weights, measures, currency, and writing across China @t[221 BCE..210 BCE] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Began construction of the Great Wall by linking existing fortifications @t[~221 BCE..210 BCE] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Built an extensive road and canal network @t[221 BCE..210 BCE] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Expanded the empire south into Yue lands (modern Hunan and Guangdong) and conquered the Ordos Plateau from the Xiongnu @t[221 BCE..210 BCE] [^1]
- Terracotta Army: ~8,000 life-sized warrior figures, 130 chariots with 520 horses, and 150 cavalry horses guarding his mausoleum; discovered 1974; main tomb mound remains unexcavated [^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Controversies
- Burning of books and burying of scholars (~213–212 BCE) @t[213 BCE..212 BCE] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Harsh Legalist governance @t[221 BCE..210 BCE] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Massive forced labor for construction projects @t[221 BCE..210 BCE] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## Legacy
The Qin dynasty collapsed shortly after his death (206 BCE), but his unification model was adopted by the succeeding Han dynasty. @t[=206 BCE]

---
[^1]: Sima Qian, *Records of the Grand Historian* (*Shiji*)
[^2]: Portal, J. *The First Emperor: China's Terracotta Army* (British Museum, 2007)

## Review Queue

<!-- factbase:review -->

- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 21: "Terracotta Army: ~8,000 life-sized warrior figures guarding his mausoleum, di..." - Portal source from 2007 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Established scholarship remains current.


id: 009548
repo_id: main
file_path: rulers/ramesses-ii.md
file_hash: ddeba2c06cfef2a6de74169d655df8520fc9a15748a78b32c4886e725def7e08
title: Ramesses II
doc_type: ruler
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.651909724+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:49.896378077+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:009548 -->
# Ramesses II

## Overview
Ramesses II (~1303–1213 BCE), also known as Ramesses the Great, was the third pharaoh of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt and one of the most powerful and celebrated rulers of ancient Egypt. His Egyptian regnal name was Usermaatre Setepenre; in ancient Greek sources he is called Ozymandias, derived from the first part of that name. @t[1303 BCE..1213 BCE] [^3]

## Key Facts
- Born: ~1303 BCE @t[~1303 BCE]
- Reign: ~1279–1213 BCE (66 years, one of the longest in Egyptian history) @t[1279 BCE..1213 BCE]
- Dynasty: 19th Dynasty, New Kingdom
- Capital: Pi-Ramesses (Nile Delta)
- Died: ~1213 BCE, age ~90 @t[~1213 BCE]
- Principal wife: Nefertari (Nefertari Meritmut)
- Tomb: KV7, Valley of the Kings

## Major Events
- Battle of Kadesh (~1274 BCE): Fought the Hittites under Muwatalli II; indecisive but claimed as victory @t[~1274 BCE] [^1]
- Treaty of Kadesh (~1259 BCE): Signed peace with Hittite king Hattusili III; sealed by a diplomatic marriage to a Hittite princess @t[~1259 BCE]
- Led at least 15 military campaigns in the Levant, reasserting Egyptian control over Canaan and Phoenicia [^3]
- Led multiple campaigns into Nubia, commemorated in inscriptions at Beit el-Wali and Gerf Hussein [^3]
- Built Abu Simbel temples in Nubia
- Built the Ramesseum (mortuary temple) at Thebes
- Expanded Karnak and Luxor temples
- Completed the hypostyle hall at Karnak

## Legacy
- Fathered over 100 children
- His mummy was discovered in the Deir el-Bahari cache (TT320) in 1881 [^2]; analysis reveals severe arthritis, arteriosclerosis, and dental abscesses consistent with advanced age [^3]
- His original burial comprised three nested coffins: an inner gilded wooden coffin, an intermediary alabaster coffin, and an outer granite sarcophagus; the body was transferred to a plain wooden coffin in antiquity to protect it from grave robbers [^5]
- His original granite outer sarcophagus was identified in 2024 by Egyptologist Frédéric Payraudeau (Sorbonne University) from a fragment discovered in 2009 at a Coptic monastery in Abydos; the fragment had been reused by high priest Menkheperre during the 21st Dynasty (~1069–943 BCE), who overwrote much of the original hieroglyphic text, obscuring the royal cartouche [^4][^5]
- Often identified (controversially) with the pharaoh of the Exodus narrative
- Nine subsequent pharaohs took the name Ramesses; he was referred to as the "Great Ancestor" by successor pharaohs [^3]

## Recent Discoveries
- Ramesseum excavations (2025): A joint Egyptian-French expedition (operating since 1991) uncovered the "House of Life" — an ancient scientific school — inside the mortuary temple complex, along with administrative buildings, workshops (kitchens, bakeries, stonework, textile production), and storage cellars for olive oil, honey, and wine; Third Intermediate Period shaft tombs to the northeast yielded well-preserved canopic jars, ushabti figurines, and coffins [^6]
- Hermopolis Magna statue (2024): A joint Egyptian-American mission at El Ashmunein (ancient Hermopolis Magna) recovered the upper torso (~3.8 m tall) of a massive limestone seated statue of Ramesses II; the lower half had been found by German archaeologist Günther Roeder in 1930; the reunited statue stands ~7 m tall and was likely part of a temple entrance dedicated to Thoth; University of Colorado Boulder participated in documentation [^7]

---
[^1]: Kitchen, K.A. *Pharaoh Triumphant: The Life and Times of Ramesses II* (1982)
[^2]: Tyldesley, J. *Ramesses: Egypt's Greatest Pharaoh* (2000)
[^3]: Wikipedia contributors. "Ramesses II." *Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia*. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramesses_II
[^4]: "Ramesses II — Original Sarcophagus Identified Within the Valley of Kings." *Ancient Origins* (2025). https://www.ancient-origins.net/news-history-archaeology/ramesses-ii-original-sarcophagus-identified-within-valley-kings-0020845
[^5]: Steinmeyer, N. "The Sarcophagus of Ramesses the Great." *Biblical Archaeology Society* (May 2025). https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/ancient-cultures/ancient-egypt/the-sarcophagus-of-ramesses-the-great/
[^6]: Steinmeyer, N. "Revealing the Mortuary Temple of Ramesses II." *Biblical Archaeology Society* (April 2025). https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/ancient-cultures/ancient-egypt/revealing-the-mortuary-temple-of-ramesses-ii/
[^7]: "Lost for 96 Years Beneath the Nile, the Missing Half of a Legendary Egyptian Statue Has Finally Been Found." *The Daily Galaxy* (February 2026). https://dailygalaxy.com/2026/02/ramesses-ii-legendary-statue-finally-found/


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file_path: rulers/sargon-of-akkad.md
file_hash: 60870567d6ae3561415665a0080aa6b9dfff3ac8058efa7271e05b3fc651a14c
title: Sargon of Akkad
doc_type: ruler
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.652909728+00:00
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content:
<!-- factbase:e55b29 -->
# Sargon of Akkad

## Overview
Sargon of Akkad (~2334–2279 BCE) founded the Akkadian Empire, the first empire in recorded history. His rise from humble origins to ruler of all Mesopotamia became legendary. @t[~2334 BCE..~2279 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Reign: ~2334–2279 BCE @t[~2334 BCE..~2279 BCE]
- Also known as: Sargon the Great; throne name Sharru-kin (Akkadian: "True King" or "Legitimate King") [^3]
- Title: King of Akkad, King of Kish, King of the Four Quarters
- Capital: Akkad/Agade (location undiscovered; believed near modern Baghdad) [^3]
- Empire: United Sumerian and Akkadian city-states across Mesopotamia
- Reigned 56 years per the Sumerian King List; died of natural causes [^3]

## Life and Reign
- Birth legend: Set adrift in a basket on the Euphrates as an infant (parallels Moses narrative) [^1]
- Rose to power as cupbearer to Ur-Zababa, the King of Kish
- Conquered Lugal-zage-si of Uruk, unifying Sumer; paraded him in chains through Nippur [^3]
- Conducted military campaigns from the Mediterranean to the Persian Gulf, including Mari, Ashur, Nineveh, and possibly Asia Minor [^3]
- Appointed his daughter Enheduanna (~2285–2250 BCE) as high priestess of Ur — she became the first named author in history [^2]
- Maintained a standing army of ~5,400 soldiers based in Akkad [^3]

## Administration
- Placed trusted governors ("Citizens of Akkad") in over 65 cities across the empire [^3]
- Standardized weights and measures for trade and commerce [^3]
- Created the first known postal system: clay tablets sealed inside clay envelopes addressed to recipients [^3]
- Promoted the Akkadian language and cuneiform script as administrative tools across conquered territories [^4]

## Successors
- Son Rimush succeeded him, reigning ~9 years @t[~2279 BCE..~2270 BCE]
- Son Manishtusu followed, reigning ~15 years @t[~2270 BCE..~2255 BCE]
- Grandson Naram-Sin (r. ~2261–2224 BCE) brought the empire to its greatest extent @t[~2261 BCE..~2224 BCE] [^3]

## Primary Sources
- *The Legend of Sargon of Akkad* — his purported autobiography, preserved in the Library of Ashurbanipal at Nineveh; rediscovered in the 19th century CE [^3]
- Copper head of Sargon found at Nineveh (1931 CE), now in the Iraq Museum, Baghdad [^5]

## Legacy
Sargon became a legendary figure in Mesopotamian tradition, with later kings modeling themselves after him. Scholar Paul Kriwaczek notes he was regarded as "a semi-sacred figure, the patron saint of all subsequent empires in the Mesopotamian realm" for at least 1,500 years after his death. [^3]

---
[^1]: Westenholz, J.G. *Legends of the Kings of Akkade* (1997)
[^2]: Hallo, W.W. & van Dijk, J.J.A. *The Exaltation of Inanna* (1968)
[^3]: Mark, J.J. "Sargon of Akkad." *World History Encyclopedia* (2009). worldhistory.org/Sargon_of_Akkad/
[^4]: "Sargon of Akkad: The Architect of the First Empire." ancientcivs.blog (2025). ancientcivs.blog/sargon-of-akkad/
[^5]: "Sargon of Akkad." *Encyclopaedia Britannica*. britannica.com/biography/Sargon
---


- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Reign: ~2334–2279 BCE" - when was this true?
> 2279 BCE event. Attested by Westenholz (1997) [^1]; Hallo (1968) [^2]. BCE temporal tags not yet supported by factbase.
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Title: King of Akkad, King of Kish, King of the Four Quarters" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Westenholz (1997) [^1]; Hallo (1968) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Capital: Akkad (location undiscovered)" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Westenholz (1997) [^1]; Hallo (1968) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 13: "Empire: United Sumerian and Akkadian city-states" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Westenholz (1997) [^1]; Hallo (1968) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 16: "Birth legend: Set adrift in a basket on the Euphrates as an infant (parallels..." - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Westenholz (1997) [^1]; Hallo (1968) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 17: "Rose to power as cupbearer to the King of Kish" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Westenholz (1997) [^1]; Hallo (1968) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Conquered Lugal-zage-si of Uruk, unifying Sumer" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Westenholz (1997) [^1]; Hallo (1968) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Conducted military campaigns from the Mediterranean to the Persian Gulf" - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Westenholz (1997) [^1]; Hallo (1968) [^2].
- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 20: "Appointed his daughter Enheduanna as high priestess of Ur — she became the ..." - when was this true?
> Historical event. Attested by Westenholz (1997) [^1]; Hallo (1968) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Reign: ~2334–2279 BCE" - what is the source?
> Westenholz (1997) [^1] and Hallo & van Dijk (1968) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Title: King of Akkad, King of Kish, King of the Four Quarters" - what is the source?
> Westenholz (1997) [^1] and Hallo & van Dijk (1968) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Capital: Akkad (location undiscovered)" - what is the source?
> Westenholz (1997) [^1] and Hallo & van Dijk (1968) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 13: "Empire: United Sumerian and Akkadian city-states" - what is the source?
> Westenholz (1997) [^1] and Hallo & van Dijk (1968) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 17: "Rose to power as cupbearer to the King of Kish" - what is the source?
> Westenholz (1997) [^1] and Hallo & van Dijk (1968) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Conquered Lugal-zage-si of Uruk, unifying Sumer" - what is the source?
> Westenholz (1997) [^1] and Hallo & van Dijk (1968) [^2].
- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 19: "Conducted military campaigns from the Mediterranean to the Persian Gulf" - what is the source?
> Westenholz (1997) [^1] and Hallo & van Dijk (1968) [^2].
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 16: "Birth legend: Set adrift in a basket on the Euphrates as an infant (parallels..." - Westenholz source from 1997 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Still accurate. Westenholz (1997) remains a standard reference.
- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 20: "Appointed his daughter Enheduanna as high priestess of Ur — she became the ..." - Hallo source from 1968 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
> Still accurate. Hallo & van Dijk (1968) remains a standard reference.


id: 543601
repo_id: main
file_path: technologies/bronze-working.md
file_hash: 59a059b45726dcd9cb3b2e9e0776f05fdf7e28b3d34aabf573248eea9e4168ca
title: Bronze Working
doc_type: technologie
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.660909758+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:56.598485864+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:543601 -->
# Bronze Working

## Overview
Bronze working — the alloying of copper with tin — defined the Bronze Age (~3300–1200 BCE) and enabled advances in weaponry, tools, and art across Eurasia. @t[~3300 BCE..1200 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Period: ~3300–1200 BCE (Bronze Age) @t[~3300 BCE..1200 BCE]
- Composition: ~88% copper, ~12% tin (tin-bronze); earlier arsenical bronze used arsenic instead of tin @t[~3300 BCE..1200 BCE]
- Earliest tin-bronze: Mesopotamia and the Caucasus, ~3300 BCE @t[~3300 BCE]
- Spread to: Egypt, Indus Valley, China, Europe

## Development
- Copper smelting preceded bronze by ~2,000 years (Chalcolithic period) @t[~5300 BCE..3300 BCE]
- Arsenical bronze (copper + arsenic) preceded tin-bronze and was used widely in the early Bronze Age; tin-bronze eventually replaced it due to superior strength and non-toxic production [^3]
- Tin was scarce; long-distance trade networks developed to source it (Cornwall, Afghanistan, Southeast Asia) [^1]
- Lost-wax casting (cire perdue) technique enabled complex shapes; earliest known examples date to ~4500 BCE (Varna Necropolis, Bulgaria), with widespread bronze use from ~3500 BCE in Mesopotamia @t[~4500 BCE] [^4]
- Chinese bronze casting (Shang dynasty, ~1600 BCE) achieved exceptional sophistication, producing large ritual vessels via piece-mold casting rather than lost-wax @t[~1600 BCE..1046 BCE] [^2]
- Disruption of tin trade routes is considered a contributing factor to the Bronze Age Collapse (~1200 BCE), accelerating the transition to iron [^5]

## Impact
- Superior weapons: Swords, spearheads, armor @t[~3300 BCE..1200 BCE]
- Agricultural tools: Plows, sickles @t[~3300 BCE..1200 BCE]
- Monumental art: Statuary, ritual vessels @t[~3300 BCE..1200 BCE]
- Drove long-distance trade networks for tin and copper @t[~3300 BCE..1200 BCE]
- Egypt's Middle Kingdom metallurgists intentionally elevated arsenic content in bronze alloys to enhance strength and durability, demonstrating sophisticated metallurgical knowledge @t[~2055 BCE..1650 BCE] [^6]

---
[^1]: Muhly, J.D. "Sources of Tin and the Beginnings of Bronze Metallurgy" *American Journal of Archaeology* 89 (1985)
[^2]: Bagley, R. *Shang Ritual Bronzes in the Arthur M. Sackler Collections* (1987)
[^3]: Lechtman, H. "Arsenic Bronze: Dirty Copper or Chosen Alloy?" *Journal of Field Archaeology* 23 (1996)
[^4]: Wikiwand, "Lost-wax casting" — oldest known examples ~4550–4450 BCE, Varna Necropolis, Bulgaria
[^5]: Cline, E.H. *1177 B.C.: The Year Civilization Collapsed* (2014) — Bronze Age Collapse and trade disruption
[^6]: Heritage Daily, "Study reveals arsenical bronze production during Egypt's Middle Kingdom" (2025)


id: c491ef
repo_id: main
file_path: technologies/iron-smelting.md
file_hash: da0813cf8c3373e777093480b5ef43ad9a0d0b4f2f60fe2cdc71d01571371dd6
title: Iron Smelting
doc_type: technologie
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.660909758+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:56.602455357+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:c491ef -->
# Iron Smelting

## Overview
The development of iron smelting technology (~1200 BCE onward) ushered in the Iron Age, making metal tools and weapons accessible beyond elite classes and transforming agriculture, warfare, and society. @t[~1200 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Transition period: ~1200–800 BCE (varies by region) @t[1200 BCE..800 BCE] [^1]
- Earliest iron smelting: Anatolia (Hittites), ~1500 BCE (limited use) @t[~1500 BCE] [^1]
- Widespread adoption: After the Bronze Age Collapse (~1200 BCE) @t[~1200 BCE] [^1]
- Key innovation: Carburization (adding carbon to create steel) [^1]

## Development
- Earliest surviving iron artifacts (4th millennium BCE, Egypt) were made from meteoritic iron-nickel, not smelted ore @t[~3000 BCE] [^1]
- Hittites may have been early innovators of iron smelting, though evidence is debated [^1]
- Iron became widespread after the Bronze Age Collapse disrupted tin trade routes [^1]
- Chinese independently developed cast iron by ~500 BCE (bloomery iron in the West until medieval period) @t[~500 BCE] [^2]
- Sub-Saharan Africa: the Nok culture (present-day Nigeria) may have independently developed iron smelting ~800–1000 BCE; evidence from Termit (Niger) pushes possible dates to ~1500 BCE, though whether this was independent invention or diffusion remains debated @t[~1000 BCE..800 BCE] [^3]
- South India developed wootz steel (crucible steel) by the mid-1st millennium BCE (~500–300 BCE) and was exporting it to China, Africa, the Middle East, and Europe by the 4th century BCE @t[~500 BCE..300 BCE] [^4]

## Impact
- Democratized access to metal tools (iron ore is abundant, unlike tin) [^1]
- Improved agricultural productivity (iron plows) [^1]
- Transformed warfare (iron weapons, armor) [^1]
- Enabled deforestation and land clearing at scale [^1]

---
[^1]: Waldbaum, J. *From Bronze to Iron* (1978)
[^2]: Wagner, D. *Iron and Steel in Ancient China* (Brill, 1993)
[^3]: Alpern, S.B. "Did They or Didn't They Invent It? Iron in Sub-Saharan Africa" *History in Africa* 32 (2005); Wikipedia, "Iron metallurgy in Africa"
[^4]: Srinivasan, S. & Ranganathan, S. *India's Legendary Wootz Steel* (National Institute of Advanced Studies, 2004); Wikipedia, "Wootz steel"


id: dcee65
repo_id: main
file_path: technologies/roman-aqueducts.md
file_hash: 797108c7e12bd1c90bc36b90a18e0dc33a2d863047830fcb1d7f60651c6d2531
title: Roman Aqueducts
doc_type: technologie
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.660909758+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:56.604946622+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:dcee65 -->
# Roman Aqueducts

## Overview
Roman aqueducts were engineering marvels that transported water over long distances using gravity, supplying cities with fresh water for drinking, bathing, and sanitation. Rome alone had 11 aqueducts delivering ~1 million cubic meters daily. Across the empire, Romans built over 200 aqueducts supplying cities from Britain to Mesopotamia. [^3]

## Key Facts
- First Roman aqueduct: Aqua Appia (312 BCE) @t[=312 BCE]
- Total aqueducts serving Rome: 11 (by 226 CE) @t[312 BCE..226 CE]
- Combined length: ~500 km (mostly underground) @t[312 BCE..226 CE]
- Daily water delivery to Rome: ~1 million cubic meters [^1]
- Last aqueduct built for Rome: Aqua Alexandrina (226 CE) @t[=226 CE]

## Engineering
- Gravity-fed: Maintained a consistent gradient (~1:200 to 1:4800) @t[312 BCE..476 CE]
- Mostly underground channels; iconic arched bridges were only ~5% of total length
- Used *opus caementicium* (Roman concrete) and lead pipes (*fistulae*)
- Settling tanks and distribution castella regulated flow
- Water also supported mining operations, milling, farms, and gardens [^3]

## Notable Aqueducts
- Aqua Appia (312 BCE): First aqueduct, built by Appius Claudius Caecus @t[=312 BCE] [^1]
- Aqua Marcia (144 BCE): Longest serving Rome at ~91 km @t[=144 BCE] [^1]
- Aqua Claudia (52 CE): Begun by Caligula (38 CE), completed by Claudius; ~69 km long @t[38 CE..52 CE] [^3]
- Pont du Gard (France, ~19 BCE): Three-tiered bridge, 49 m high @t[~19 BCE] [^2]
- Aqueduct of Segovia (Spain, late 1st–early 2nd century CE): Still standing; date debated — Géza Alföldy's reading of the dedication plaque suggests ~98 CE (Domitian), while a 2016 coin find points to 112–116 CE (Trajan/Hadrian) @t[~98 CE..116 CE] [^4]
- Aqua Alexandrina (226 CE): Last of Rome's 11 aqueducts @t[=226 CE] [^3]

---
[^1]: Frontinus, *De Aquaeductu Urbis Romae* (~97 CE)
[^2]: Hodge, A.T. *Roman Aqueducts and Water Supply* (2002)
[^3]: Wikipedia, "Roman aqueduct" — https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_aqueduct
[^4]: El País, "Age of Segovia aqueduct revised after discovery of ancient coin" (2016) — https://english.elpais.com/elpais/2016/11/01/inenglish/1477997248_304960.html


id: eb53be
repo_id: main
file_path: technologies/roman-concrete.md
file_hash: 5124c978b155615069cef0982eb751a5ce07043f1022b29c928f1ae6be5017a3
title: Roman Concrete
doc_type: technologie
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T22:56:12.419274855+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T22:58:11.972445789+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:eb53be -->
# Roman Concrete

## Overview
Roman concrete (*opus caementicium*) was a revolutionary building material that enabled the construction of domes, vaults, harbors, and aqueducts. @t[~300 BCE..476 CE] Its durability surpasses modern Portland cement in some marine applications.

## Key Facts
- Period of use: ~3rd century BCE – 5th century CE @t[~300 BCE..476 CE]
- Composition: Volcanic ash (pozzolana), lime, seawater, and rock aggregate
- Key innovation: Pozzolanic reaction with volcanic ash
- Volcanic ash source: Primarily from Pozzuoli (Bay of Naples) and the Campi Flegrei volcanic region

## Properties
- Set underwater (hydraulic cement) — critical for harbor construction @t[~300 BCE..476 CE]
- Increased in strength over time through mineral crystallization [^1]
- Could be molded into complex shapes (domes, vaults)
- Less tensile strength than modern concrete but superior durability

## Manufacturing Process
Roman builders used a "hot mixing" technique: quicklime was combined with dry volcanic ash before water was added. The exothermic reaction produced intense heat, trapping reactive lime as millimeter-scale white fragments (lime clasts) within the mortar matrix. [^3]

When cracks later formed in the concrete, these lime clasts dissolved and re-cemented the fractures — giving Roman concrete self-healing properties. This mechanism was confirmed by analysis of samples from Privernum, Italy, and corroborated by a 2025 excavation at Pompeii. [^3]

## Marine Concrete
In harbor structures, seawater seeping through the concrete dissolved volcanic minerals and caused aluminous tobermorite (Al-tobermorite) and phillipsite crystals to grow within the matrix. These interlocking crystals reinforced the concrete over centuries, explaining its exceptional durability in marine environments. [^4]

## Notable Structures
- Pantheon dome (~125 CE) @t[~125 CE]: 43.3 m span, largest unreinforced concrete dome ever built
- Colosseum (~80 CE) @t[=80 CE]: Concrete core with travertine facing
- Harbor of Sebastos, Caesarea Maritima (~22–10 BCE) @t[~22 BCE..~10 BCE]: Built by Herod the Great; pozzolana imported from the Bay of Naples [^5]
- Harbor at Puteoli
- Baths of Caracalla (~212–217 CE) @t[~212 CE..~217 CE] [^2]
- Baths of Diocletian (~298–306 CE) @t[~298 CE..~306 CE] [^2]

---
[^1]: Jackson, M. et al. "Mechanical resilience and cementitious processes in Imperial Roman architectural mortar" *PNAS* 111 (2014)
[^2]: Lancaster, L. *Concrete Vaulted Construction in Imperial Rome* (Cambridge, 2005)
[^3]: Masic, A. et al. "Hot mixing: Mechanistic insights into the durability of ancient Roman concrete" *Science Advances* 9 (2023) doi:10.1126/sciadv.add1602
[^4]: Jackson, M. et al. "Phillipsite and Al-tobermorite mineral cements produced through low-temperature water-rock reactions in Roman marine concrete" *American Mineralogist* 102 (2017)
[^5]: Brandon, C. et al. *Building for Eternity: The History and Technology of Roman Concrete Engineering in the Sea* (Oxbow Books, 2014)


id: 11bfdd
repo_id: main
file_path: technologies/roman-roads.md
file_hash: 4786a674470eda1364fd7a7091b57feb8a73465df7f9237c27546028d6b51436
title: Roman Roads
doc_type: technologie
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.660909758+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:56.607378865+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:11bfdd -->
# Roman Roads

## Overview
The Roman road network was one of the greatest engineering achievements of the ancient world, spanning ~400,000 km at its peak and enabling rapid military movement, trade, and communication across the empire. At its height, 29 military highways radiated from Rome, connecting 113 provinces via 372 roads. [^3]

## Key Facts
- Total network: ~400,000 km (80,000 km paved) [^1] [^2]
- First major road: Via Appia (312 BCE), Rome to Capua @t[=312 BCE]
- Construction: Layered system of gravel, sand, and paving stones [^1]
- Maintained by: State and local authorities

## Engineering
- Surveyed in straight lines where possible (*agrimensor* surveyors)
- Layered construction: Foundation (*statumen*), gravel (*rudus*), concrete (*nucleus*), paving (*summa crusta*) [^1]
- Drainage ditches on both sides
- Milestones (*miliaria*) every Roman mile (~1.48 km)

## Major Roads
- Via Appia (312 BCE): "Queen of Roads," initially Rome to Capua @t[=312 BCE]; later extended to Brindisi (Brundisium) by the late 3rd century BCE [^2] [^4]
- Via Egnatia (146–120 BCE): Built by proconsul Gnaeus Egnatius to consolidate the province of Macedonia; connected the Adriatic coast (Dyrrachium) to Byzantium, ~1,120 km @t[~146 BCE..~120 BCE] [^3]
- Via Augusta (8–2 BCE): Renovated by Augustus from the earlier Via Herculea; ran from Gades (Cádiz) to the Pyrenees, ~1,500 km @t[~8 BCE..~2 BCE] [^5]
- Stane Street, Watling Street: Roman Britain, constructed after the invasion of 43 CE @t[~43 CE..410 CE] [^2]

## Legacy
- The *Milliarium Aureum* (Golden Milestone), erected by Augustus in 20 BCE @t[=20 BCE], stood in the Forum as the symbolic origin point of the entire road network [^6]
- "All roads lead to Rome" — distances across the empire were measured from this monument
- Many modern European roads follow Roman alignments

---
[^1]: Laurence, R. *The Roads of Roman Italy* (Routledge, 1999)
[^2]: Chevallier, R. *Roman Roads* (University of California Press, 1976)
[^3]: Wikipedia, "Roman roads," https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_roads
[^4]: LacusCurtius, "Via Appia," *Encyclopaedia Britannica* (1911 ed.), https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Periods/Roman/Topics/Engineering/roads/Appia/Britannica_1911*.html
[^5]: Wikipedia, "Via Augusta," https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Via_Augusta
[^6]: LacusCurtius, "Milliarium Aureum," Platner & Ashby (1929), https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Italy/Lazio/Roma/Rome/_Texts/PLATOP*/Milliarium_Aureum.html


id: 445d5a
repo_id: main
file_path: trade-routes/amber-road.md
file_hash: 715b283fd3fe12a2566cf34025e9e3ca151602913c241ece34073a525c748abd
title: Amber Road
doc_type: trade-route
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.650909720+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:56.610056797+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:445d5a -->
# Amber Road

## Overview
The Amber Road was an ancient trade route connecting the Baltic Sea coast to the Mediterranean, primarily transporting amber from northern Europe to the civilizations of Greece, Rome, and Egypt. Prehistoric trade routes between Northern and Southern Europe were largely defined by the amber trade, with amber sometimes called "the gold of the north." @t[~3000 BCE..~400 CE]

## Key Facts
- Period: ~3000 BCE – Roman era @t[~3000 BCE..~400 CE]
- Key good: Baltic amber (fossilized tree resin)
- Northern terminus: Baltic coast (modern Poland, Lithuania)
- Southern terminus: Adriatic (Aquileia), Greece, Egypt
- Return goods: Romans exported glass, brass, gold, tin, and copper northward in exchange [^3]

## Route
- From the Baltic coast through the Vistula, Dnieper, and Danube river corridors [^3]
- Key waypoints: Biskupin, Wrocław, Carnuntum, Aquileia [^1]
- In Roman times, the main route ran south from the Baltic coast (modern Lithuania) through Poland, through the land of the Boii (modern Czech Republic/Slovakia), to Aquileia at the Adriatic [^3]
- Connected to Mediterranean trade networks at the Adriatic, and onward to the Silk Road via the Black Sea [^1] [^3]
- Roman military fortifications were built along the route to protect merchants from Germanic raids [^3]

## Significance
- Baltic amber found in Mycenaean shaft graves @t[~1600 BCE] and in Tutankhamun's breast ornament @t[~1330 BCE]; spectroscopic analysis confirmed Baltic origin [^3]
- Amber from the Amber Road reached the Royal Hypogeum of Qatna (Syria) in unparalleled quantities for the ancient Near East @t[~1500 BCE..~1200 BCE] [^3]
- Amber was sent as an offering to the Temple of Apollo at Delphi [^3]
- Romans valued amber highly; Nero sent an expedition to the Baltic to procure it @t[~61] [^2]
- The Amber Road likely stimulated the Nordic Bronze Age, bringing Mediterranean influences northward [^3]
- World's largest archaeological amber find (~1,240–1,760 kg) discovered at Partynice near Wrocław, dating to the 1st century BCE @t[~100 BCE] [^3]
- Facilitated cultural exchange between northern and southern Europe [^2]

## Origins: Sicilian Amber
Before Baltic amber dominated, Sicilian amber was the primary source for Greece, North Africa, and Spain. Baltic amber gradually displaced Sicilian amber on the Iberian Peninsula from around 1000 BCE @t[~1000 BCE]. [^3]

---
[^1]: Bouzek, J. "The Amber Route" in *Greece, Anatolia and Europe* (1997)
[^2]: Causey, F. *Amber and the Ancient World* (Getty Museum, 2011)
[^3]: Wikipedia contributors, "Amber Road," *Wikipedia* (accessed 2026-02-23), citing de Navarro (1925), Reeves (1990), Mukherjee et al. (2008), Jovaiša (2001), Schachinger (2020)


id: aca285
repo_id: main
file_path: trade-routes/incense-route.md
file_hash: 4364ddaa2d0f12b23dd880617f0ca9e823ed6405d67453f64bd550b6e217eb75
title: Incense Route
doc_type: trade-route
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.650909720+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:56.612336773+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:aca285 -->
# Incense Route

## Overview
The Incense Route was a network of trade paths connecting the Arabian Peninsula to the Mediterranean, primarily transporting frankincense and myrrh from southern Arabia (modern Yemen and Oman) to markets in Egypt, Mesopotamia, Greece, and Rome. It also carried goods from India and East Africa, making it one of the ancient world's most economically significant trade networks.

## Key Facts
- Period: ~7th century BCE – ~3rd century CE @t[~700 BCE..~300 CE]
- Peak activity: ~3rd century BCE – ~2nd century CE @t[~300 BCE..~200 CE]
- Length: ~2,400 km (main overland route)
- Key goods: Frankincense, myrrh, spices, textiles, Indian luxury goods
- Key peoples: Nabataeans, Sabaeans, Minaeans [^1]

## Route
- Southern terminus: Dhofar (Oman) and Hadhramaut (Yemen)
- Northern terminus: Gaza, Petra, Damascus
- Key waypoints: Shabwa, Ma'rib, Petra, Gaza [^1]
- Negev segment: Four Nabataean towns — Haluza, Mamshit, Avdat, and Shivta — served as key stations on the final leg from Petra to Gaza @t[~300 BCE..~200 CE] [^3]

## Key Players
- Nabataeans: Controlled the northern segment from Petra; grew wealthy as middlemen @t[~300 BCE..106 CE] [^1] [^2]
- Kingdom of Saba (Sheba): Controlled production in southern Arabia [^1]
- Minaeans: Earlier controllers of the southern Arabian trade, predating Nabataean dominance @t[~700 BCE..~100 BCE] [^1]
- Romans: Attempted to conquer Arabia Felix under Aelius Gallus (26–24 BCE) but failed @t[26 BCE..24 BCE] [^2] [^4]

## Roman Period
Rome annexed the Nabataean Kingdom under Emperor Trajan in 106 CE @t[=106 CE], creating the province of Arabia Petraea with Petra as its capital. Paradoxically, trade along the route reached its apex in the period immediately following annexation, before a marked decline set in during the 3rd century CE @t[~200 CE..~300 CE]. [^2] [^3]

## Decline
The overland route declined for two main reasons:
1. Romans discovered how to exploit monsoon wind patterns (attributed to the navigator Hippalus, ~1st century BCE) enabling direct sea trade with India via the Red Sea, bypassing overland routes @t[~100 BCE..~100 CE] [^5]
2. The Roman annexation of Nabataea in 106 CE @t[=106 CE] disrupted the Nabataean middleman system, and the route saw sharp decline through the 3rd century CE [^3]

## Primary Sources
- Strabo, *Geographica* (1st century BCE/CE): Detailed account of the Aelius Gallus expedition and Arabian trade [^4]
- *Periplus of the Erythraean Sea* (1st century CE): Eyewitness account of Red Sea and Indian Ocean trade routes, documenting the shift to maritime trade [^5]

## UNESCO Recognition
The Negev segment of the route — comprising the Nabataean towns of Haluza, Mamshit, Avdat, and Shivta along with associated fortresses and agricultural landscapes — was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2005 @t[=2005 CE]. [^3]

---
[^1]: Avanzini, A. *Along the Aroma Routes* (2008)
[^2]: Hoyland, R. *Arabia and the Arabs* (Routledge, 2001)
[^3]: UNESCO World Heritage Centre, "Incense Route – Desert Cities in the Negev," inscribed 2005. https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1107
[^4]: Strabo, *Geographica* XVI.4.22–24 (primary source for Aelius Gallus expedition and Arabian trade)
[^5]: *Periplus of the Erythraean Sea*, anonymous Greek-Egyptian author, 1st century CE (documents monsoon navigation and Red Sea trade)


id: c22a18
repo_id: main
file_path: trade-routes/silk-road.md
file_hash: 5e5ed8da7ab33f987511aac29d51d60bd386011c63b83b0de5e38d24eb63bd8b
title: Silk Road
doc_type: trade-route
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.650909720+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:56.614661911+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:c22a18 -->
# Silk Road

## Overview
The Silk Road was a network of overland trade routes connecting China to the Mediterranean world, facilitating the exchange of goods, ideas, religions, and technologies for over 1,500 years. It was not a single road but a web of interconnected routes across Central Asia, with no single traveler traversing the full length. [^3]

## Key Facts
- Period: ~130 BCE – ~1450 CE (ancient period focus: ~130 BCE – ~400 CE) @t[~130 BCE..~1450 CE]
- Length: ~6,400 km (main overland route)
- Named by: Ferdinand von Richthofen (1877) @t[=1877 CE]
- Key goods: Silk, spices, gold, glass, horses, precious stones

## Route
- Eastern terminus: Chang'an (Xi'an), China
- Western terminus: Rome, Antioch, Constantinople
- Key waypoints: Dunhuang, Kashgar, Samarkand, Merv, Ctesiphon, Palmyra
- Crossed the Taklamakan Desert, Pamir Mountains, and Iranian Plateau [^1]

## Key Empires and Intermediaries
- The **Han dynasty** (China) and **Roman Empire** were the primary producers and consumers of silk, but direct contact between them was rare [^3]
- The **Parthian Empire** (~247 BCE – 224 CE) controlled the middle section of the route and acted as the principal intermediary between Rome and China, profiting from transit trade @t[~247 BCE..224 CE] [^4]
- The **Kushan Empire** (1st–3rd century CE) facilitated trade across Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent, connecting the overland and maritime routes @t[~30 CE..375 CE] [^3]
- **Sogdian merchants** from Samarkand dominated commercial activity along the route from roughly the 4th to 8th century CE, operating trading colonies as far east as China @t[~300 CE..~750 CE] [^5]

## Cultural Exchange
- Buddhism spread from India to China via the Silk Road, carried by monks and merchants from roughly the 1st century CE onward @t[~1 CE..~400 CE] [^1]
- Nestorian Christianity, Manichaeism, and Islam traveled eastward in later centuries
- Technologies transferred: Papermaking (China → West), glassmaking (West → East), and later gunpowder
- Diseases also spread along the routes, possibly including the Antonine Plague (165–180 CE) and Plague of Cyprian (249–262 CE) [^2]

## Maritime Silk Road
A complementary sea route — the Maritime Silk Road — connected China's southern ports to Southeast Asia, India, the Arabian Peninsula, and East Africa, beginning by the 2nd century BCE. [^6] During the Han dynasty, maritime trade relations with Southeast Asia and India were established alongside the overland routes.

## Key Periods
- **Han dynasty** (206 BCE – 220 CE): Zhang Qian's first mission to the Western Regions in 138 BCE (dispatched by Emperor Wu) opened diplomatic contact; his second mission followed in 119 BCE. These missions catalyzed the formal opening of the route ~130–114 BCE. @t[206 BCE..220 CE] [^1]
- **Kushan Empire** (1st–3rd century CE): Facilitated trade across Central Asia @t[~30 CE..375 CE]
- **Pax Romana / Pax Sinica** (~50 BCE – 250 CE): The four empires of Rome, Parthia, Kushan, and Han simultaneously stable, enabling peak ancient Silk Road trade @t[~50 BCE..~250 CE] [^4]
- Roman demand for Chinese silk was so great that Roman writers complained of gold draining eastward [^2]

---
[^1]: Hansen, V. *The Silk Road: A New History* (Oxford, 2012)
[^2]: Frankopan, P. *The Silk Roads: A New History of the World* (2015)
[^3]: Wikipedia contributors. "Silk Road." *Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia*. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silk_Road (accessed 2026)
[^4]: "The 4 Powerful Empires of the Silk Road." *The Collector* (2022). https://www.thecollector.com/four-empires-silk-road/
[^5]: "Sogdian Traders Along the Silk Road." *ResearchGate* (2023). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/371261395
[^6]: Wikipedia contributors. "Maritime Silk Road." *Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia*. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maritime_Silk_Road (accessed 2026)


id: d23a9f
repo_id: main
file_path: treaties/peace-of-nicias.md
file_hash: 8d2afb6d1db3a58817a308c78fb5123a0ba3a212e2f3bbc7511ea2752404551f
title: Peace of Nicias
doc_type: treatie
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.657909746+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:56.617283348+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:d23a9f -->
# Peace of Nicias

## Overview
The Peace of Nicias (421 BCE) was a treaty intended to end the first phase of the Peloponnesian War (the Archidamian War) between Athens and Sparta. Signed in March 421 BCE, it was supposed to last 50 years but effectively collapsed within a few years. @t[=421 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Date: March 421 BCE @t[=421 BCE]
- Parties: Athens and Sparta (and their respective allies)
- Negotiators: Nicias (Athens) and King Pleistoanax (Sparta) [^3]
- Context: Ended the Archidamian War (431–421 BCE), first phase of the Peloponnesian War @t[431 BCE..421 BCE]
- Duration: Nominally 50 years; effectively ~6 years

## Terms
The treaty's specific provisions, recorded by Thucydides (5.18–19), included: [^1]
- Sparta to return Amphipolis to Athens
- Athens to release the 292 prisoners captured at Pylos and Sphacteria (425 BCE), including at least 120 Spartiates @t[=425 BCE]
- Mutual non-aggression for 50 years
- Disputes to be settled by arbitration
- Temples and sanctuaries throughout Greece to be open to worshippers from all cities
- The oracle at Delphi to regain its autonomy

## Failure
- Key Spartan allies (Corinth, Boeotia) refused to sign
- Neither side fully implemented the terms; Sparta failed to deliver Amphipolis, which remained under local control
- Alcibiades undermined the peace by forming the Quadruple Alliance with Argos, Elis, and Mantinea (420 BCE) @t[=420 BCE] [^2]
- The Battle of Mantinea (418 BCE) further destabilized the settlement @t[=418 BCE] [^1]
- The Sicilian Expedition (415–413 BCE) effectively ended any pretense of peace @t[415 BCE..413 BCE] [^2]

---
[^1]: Thucydides, *History of the Peloponnesian War* 5.18–19
[^2]: Kagan, D. *The Peace of Nicias and the Sicilian Expedition* (Cornell, 1981)
[^3]: Thucydides, *History of the Peloponnesian War* 5.17; Plutarch, *Life of Nicias* 9


id: 7207df
repo_id: main
file_path: treaties/treaty-of-apamea.md
file_hash: 789817041bd15f145d2709c48d5a4c64b3e986c76aed711dfa57754243670020
title: Treaty of Apamea
doc_type: treatie
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.657909746+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:56.619824579+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:7207df -->
# Treaty of Apamea

## Overview
The Treaty of Apamea (188 BCE) was imposed by Rome on the Seleucid Empire after the Roman-Seleucid War, effectively ending Seleucid power in Anatolia and establishing Roman dominance in the eastern Mediterranean. @t[=188 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Date: 188 BCE @t[=188 BCE]
- Parties: Roman Republic and Seleucid Empire (Antiochus III)
- Context: Followed the Battle of Magnesia (190 BCE) @t[=190 BCE]

## Terms
- Seleucids withdrew from all territory west of the Taurus Mountains
- War indemnity of 15,000 Euboic talents of silver: 500 paid immediately, 2,500 on Senate ratification, then 1,000 talents annually for 12 years [^1]
- Seleucid navy reduced to 10 warships; all war elephants surrendered
- Territory redistributed to Rome's allies: Pergamon received Lydia, Phrygia, Mysia, Pisidia, and Pamphylia; Rhodes received Caria and Lycia [^1]
- Antiochus III's son (the future Antiochus IV Epiphanes) taken to Rome as a political hostage [^3]
- Seleucids prohibited from expanding west of the Taurus Mountains in perpetuity

## Significance
- Marked the end of Seleucid influence in Anatolia
- Established Rome as the dominant power in the eastern Mediterranean
- Established *philia* (amity) between Rome and the Seleucid dynasty, governing relations for the following half-century [^4]
- Weakened the Seleucid Empire, contributing to its eventual fragmentation [^2]

---
[^1]: Polybius, *Histories* 21.43
[^2]: Gruen, E. *The Hellenistic World and the Coming of Rome* (1984)
[^3]: Wikipedia, "Antiochus IV Epiphanes" — hostage clause of the Treaty of Apamea
[^4]: Ma, J. "The Treaty of Apamea and the Later Seleucids," *Antichthon* (2015), Cambridge University Press


id: 07edd5
repo_id: main
file_path: treaties/treaty-of-kadesh.md
file_hash: b07e01349f0b7bfcf895345cae3443105a7076b53c2dd975bfcbb17e1819d938
title: Treaty of Kadesh
doc_type: treatie
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.657909746+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:56.623629208+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:07edd5 -->
# Treaty of Kadesh

## Overview
The Treaty of Kadesh (~1259 BCE) between Egypt and the Hittite Empire is the earliest known surviving international peace treaty. Also known as the Eternal Treaty or Silver Treaty, it ended decades of conflict between the two great Bronze Age powers. The name "Treaty of Kadesh" is informal — the treaty text itself does not mention the Battle of Kadesh. @t[~1259 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Date: ~1259 BCE (some scholars cite 1258 BCE) @t[~1259 BCE]
- Parties: Egypt (Ramesses II) and Hittite Empire (Hattusili III)
- Context: Followed the Battle of Kadesh (~1274 BCE), approximately 15 years later @t[~1274 BCE]
- Languages: Egyptian hieroglyphic and Akkadian cuneiform
- Original medium: Silver tablets (now lost); surviving versions are copies

## Terms
- Mutual non-aggression pact
- Defensive alliance against third-party attacks
- Extradition of political refugees (with humane treatment clause)
- Mutual recognition of borders in Syria [^1]
- Divine witnesses invoked; violations threatened with divine punishment [^3]

## Physical Record
- Egyptian version: Inscribed on temple walls at Karnak and the Ramesseum (Thebes)
- Hittite version: Cuneiform clay tablets discovered at Hattusa in 1906 by German archaeologist Hugo Winckler; two tablets now held at the Ancient Orient Museum, Istanbul [^3]
- Both versions are translations of the original silver tablets exchanged between the parties

## Significance
- Earliest known surviving peace treaty for which both parties' versions survive; an earlier diplomatic treaty between Ebla and Abarsal (~2350 BCE) predates it but is not classified as a peace treaty [^4]
- A copy hangs in the United Nations headquarters in New York as a symbol of diplomacy
- Both Egyptian and Hittite versions survive (discovered at Karnak and Hattusa) [^2]
- Later sealed by a diplomatic marriage: Maathorneferure, daughter of Hattusili III, married Ramesses II in his Year 34 (~1246 BCE) @t[~1246 BCE] [^4]
- Ushered in a prolonged period of peace and cooperation, allowing Ramesses II to focus on monumental building projects [^3]

---
[^1]: Beckman, G. *Hittite Diplomatic Texts* (1999)
[^2]: Bryce, T. *Letters of the Great Kings of the Ancient Near East* (2003)
[^3]: Wikipedia, "Egyptian–Hittite peace treaty", https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian%E2%80%93Hittite_peace_treaty
[^4]: World History Encyclopedia, "The Battle of Kadesh & the First Peace Treaty", https://www.worldhistory.org/article/78/the-battle-of-kadesh--the-first-peace-treaty/


id: f36cdb
repo_id: main
file_path: writing-systems/cuneiform.md
file_hash: a602f3467a4b08c874d692893a845df4d06916695fb178122b69312892674632
title: Cuneiform
doc_type: writing-system
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.658909750+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:56.626329768+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:f36cdb -->
# Cuneiform

## Overview
Cuneiform is the earliest known writing system, developed in Sumer ~3400 BCE. Written by pressing a reed stylus into wet clay tablets, it was used for over 3,000 years across multiple languages and civilizations. @t[~3400 BCE..=75 CE]

## Key Facts
- Origin: Sumer, southern Mesopotamia, ~3400 BCE @t[~3400 BCE]
- Medium: Clay tablets impressed with a wedge-shaped reed stylus
- Name: From Latin *cuneus* ("wedge")
- Languages written: Sumerian, Akkadian, Eblaite, Elamite, Hittite, Hurrian, Luwian, Urartian, Old Persian [^1][^3]
- Influenced: Ugaritic and Old Persian alphabets derived from the cuneiform tradition [^3]
- Deciphered by: Georg Friedrich Grotefend (1802), Henry Rawlinson, Edward Hincks, and others (~1835–1857) via the Behistun Inscription @t[~1802 CE..~1857 CE] [^1]

## Development
- Proto-cuneiform: pictographic/logographic system for accounting (~3400–3000 BCE), attested by ~5,000 tablets from Uruk @t[~3400 BCE..~3000 BCE] [^3]
- Evolved into syllabic writing by ~2600 BCE @t[~2600 BCE]
- Akkadian texts attested from the 24th century BCE onward; Akkadian became the dominant cuneiform language @t[~2400 BCE..] [^3]
- ~600–1,000 signs in use at various periods
- Last known cuneiform tablet: 75 CE (astronomical text from Babylon) @t[=75 CE] [^2]

## Significance
- Enabled record-keeping, literature, law, science, and diplomacy @t[~3400 BCE..=75 CE]
- Preserved the *Epic of Gilgamesh*, Code of Hammurabi, and thousands of administrative records
- ~500,000 cuneiform tablets have been excavated; many remain untranslated [^3]

---
[^1]: Walker, C.B.F. *Cuneiform* (British Museum, 1987)
[^2]: Robson, E. *Mathematics in Ancient Iraq* (Princeton, 2008)
[^3]: Mark, J.J. "Cuneiform." *World History Encyclopedia*, 2011. https://www.worldhistory.org/cuneiform/


id: 68261c
repo_id: main
file_path: writing-systems/egyptian-hieroglyphics.md
file_hash: 37f26a5c898393e1b1148e517e0de1266ae3fcdfc0ba499eaa2378babd8e8523
title: Egyptian Hieroglyphics
doc_type: writing-system
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.658909750+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:56.628976158+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:68261c -->
# Egyptian Hieroglyphics

## Overview
Egyptian hieroglyphics were the formal writing system of ancient Egypt, used for ~3,500 years on monuments, temples, and tombs. Deciphered by Jean-François Champollion in 1822 using the Rosetta Stone.

## Key Facts
- Origin: ~3200 BCE (earliest examples from Abydos; bone/ivory tags dated 3400–3200 BCE) @t[~3200 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Period of use: ~3200 BCE – ~400 CE @t[~3200 BCE..~400 CE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Number of signs: ~700 in classical usage (expanded to ~5,000 in Ptolemaic period) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Deciphered by: Jean-François Champollion (1822) using the Rosetta Stone @t[=1822] [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

## System
- Three sign types: logograms (word-signs), phonograms (sound-signs), and determinatives (semantic classifiers) [^3] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Written left-to-right, right-to-left, or top-to-bottom (direction indicated by which way figures face) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Hieratic: Cursive form for everyday use (~2600 BCE onward) @t[~2600 BCE..] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Demotic: Later cursive form (~650 BCE onward) @t[~650 BCE..] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Coptic: Final stage of the Egyptian language, using Greek alphabet with Demotic-derived letters (~300 CE onward)

## Key Artifacts
- Rosetta Stone (196 BCE): Trilingual decree (hieroglyphic, Demotic, Greek) that enabled decipherment @t[=196 BCE] [^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Narmer Palette (~3100 BCE): Among the earliest hieroglyphic inscriptions @t[~3100 BCE] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
- Book of the Dead: Funerary texts with hieroglyphic illustrations, used from the New Kingdom (~1550 BCE) to ~50 BCE @t[~1550 BCE..~50 BCE] [^4] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->

---
[^1]: Robinson, A. *Cracking the Egyptian Code* (Thames & Hudson, 2012)
[^2]: Parkinson, R. *The Rosetta Stone* (British Museum, 2005)
[^3]: World History Encyclopedia. "Egyptian Hieroglyphs." worldhistory.org (2025)
[^4]: Wikipedia. "Book of the Dead." en.wikipedia.org (accessed 2026)


id: a94620
repo_id: main
file_path: writing-systems/phoenician-alphabet.md
file_hash: f2188868bee511837eb6afe3ad9a3ad83723ad1708cd82b13121526f6fadf75f
title: Phoenician Alphabet
doc_type: writing-system
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T23:37:56.658909750+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T23:38:56.631616836+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:a94620 -->
# Phoenician Alphabet

## Overview
The Phoenician alphabet (~1050 BCE) was the first widely-used phonetic alphabet, consisting of 22 consonant letters. It is the ancestor of virtually all modern alphabets including Greek, Latin, Arabic, and Hebrew. @t[~1050 BCE]

## Key Facts
- Origin: Phoenicia (modern Lebanon), ~1050 BCE @t[~1050 BCE] [^1]
- Type: Abjad (consonantal alphabet, no vowels) [^2]
- Number of letters: 22 [^1]
- Direction: Right to left [^1]
- Derived from: Proto-Sinaitic/Proto-Canaanite script (~1800 BCE) @t[~1800 BCE] [^1]
- Used for: Iron Age Canaanite languages — Phoenician, Hebrew, Ammonite, Edomite, Old Aramaic [^3]

## Oldest Known Evidence
The Ahiram Sarcophagus (KAI 1), discovered in 1923 by French archaeologist Pierre Montet at Byblos (modern Jbeil, Lebanon), bears the earliest known example of the fully developed Phoenician alphabet. @t[~1050 BCE] The inscription is a funerary curse warning against disturbing the tomb; it is preserved in the National Museum of Beirut. [^4]

## Letter Names and Acrophonic Principle
The 22 letters were named acrophonically — each letter name began with the sound it represented, and the letter form derived from an Egyptian hieroglyph depicting that object. For example: *ʔalp* (𐤀, ox), *bayt* (𐤁, house), *gaml* (𐤂, throwing stick). This acrophonic origin links the Phoenician alphabet directly to Egyptian hieroglyphic tradition. [^5]

## Descendants
- Greek alphabet (~800 BCE): Added vowels, adapted letter forms @t[~800 BCE] [^1]
- Aramaic alphabet: Ancestor of Hebrew, Arabic, Syriac, and many Asian scripts [^2]
- Latin alphabet (via Greek and Etruscan): Used by most of the modern world [^2]
- Punic script: Variant used in Carthage and North Africa @t[~814 BCE..146 BCE] [^3]
- South Arabian script: Ancestor of Ethiopic (Ge'ez) [^2]

## Significance
- Simplified writing from hundreds of signs (cuneiform, hieroglyphics) to 22 letters [^2]
- Made literacy more accessible beyond scribal elites [^2]
- Spread across the Mediterranean through Phoenician trade networks; Tyro-Sidonian commercial dominance made Phoenician a maritime lingua franca during the Iron Age [^3]
- Encoded in Unicode block U+10900–U+1091F [^5]

---
[^1]: Sass, B. *The Genesis of the Alphabet* (1988)
[^2]: Daniels, P.T. & Bright, W. *The World's Writing Systems* (Oxford, 1996)
[^3]: Wikipedia contributors. "Phoenician language." *Wikipedia*. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenician_language
[^4]: History of Information. "The Oldest Known Evidence of the Phoenician Alphabet." http://www.historyofinformation.com/detail.php?id=1310
[^5]: Encyclopaedia Britannica. "Phoenician alphabet." https://www.britannica.com/topic/Phoenician-alphabet


id: 79b191
repo_id: main
file_path: test-bce-tags.md
file_hash: 5b39ecdc09dbfbe41007f48bacca050d384c15a107dfd61d5dfe352d6fb36937
title: BCE Tag Format Test
doc_type: document
file_modified_at: 2026-02-22T22:57:44.316639942+00:00
indexed_at: 2026-02-22T22:58:16.701657650+00:00
content:
<!-- factbase:test01 -->
# BCE Tag Format Test

- Format A: negative with padding @t[=-0031]
- Format B: negative no padding @t[=-31]
- Format C: negative with equals 4-digit @t[=-0031]
- Format D: just negative year @t[-0031]
- Format E: negative range @t[-0031..-0027]
- Format F: negative event no pad @t[=-31]
- Format G: proleptic year 0 for 1 BCE @t[=0000]
- Format H: negative with month @t[=-0031-09]
- Format I: plain 0031 @t[=0031]


