[2026-02-23T02:38:19+00:00] c00c4a | Roman Republic and Empire
status: UPDATED | Roman Republic and Empire | changes: Removed duplicate title heading; fixed @t[=476] to @t[=0476] in two places; expanded overview temporal tag to cover full ~753 BCE–476 span; added territory (~5,000,000 km² under Trajan) and population (~55–75 million) to Key Facts; added new Government and Constitution section covering Polybius's mixed constitution, consuls/Senate/assemblies, Conflict of the Orders, and Diocletian's Dominate; added three new footnotes (Harper 2017, Polybius Histories, Cornell 1995); removed processed answered-question block
Babylonia was a major Mesopotamian civilization centered on the city of Babylon, with two principal periods of dominance: the Old Babylonian period under Hammurabi (~1792–1750 BCE) and the Neo-Babylonian Empire (626–539 BCE) under Nebuchadnezzar II. @t[1792 BCE..1750 BCE]
Babylonia was a major Mesopotamian civilization centered on the city of Babylon, with three principal periods: the Old Babylonian period (~1894–1595 BCE), the Kassite (Middle Babylonian) period (~1595–1155 BCE), and the Neo-Babylonian Empire (626–539 BCE). The Old Babylonian period reached its height under Hammurabi (~1792–1750 BCE), who unified Mesopotamia and issued the Code of Hammurabi. The Neo-Babylonian Empire, founded by Nabopolassar and reaching its zenith under Nebuchadnezzar II, was the last native Mesopotamian empire before Persian conquest. @t[1894 BCE..539 BCE]
- Hammurabi (~1792–1750 BCE): Unified Mesopotamia, issued the Code of Hammurabi @t[1792 BCE..1750 BCE] [^1]
- Nebuchadnezzar II (605–562 BCE): Built the Ishtar Gate, destroyed the Temple of Jerusalem (586 BCE)@t[605 BCE..562 BCE]
- Nabopolassar (626–605 BCE): Founded the Neo-Babylonian (Chaldean) Empire after the fall of Assyria@t[626 BCE..605 BCE] [^3]
- Nebuchadnezzar II (605–562 BCE): Built the Ishtar Gate and Etemenanki ziggurat, destroyed the Temple of Jerusalem (586 BCE) @t[605 BCE..562 BCE] [^3]
- Nabonidus (556–539 BCE): Last native king, defeated by Cyrus the Great @t[556 BCE..539 BCE]
## Achievements
- Code of Hammurabi: One of the earliest comprehensive legal codes (~1754 BCE) @t[~1754 BCE]
- Advanced astronomy and mathematics (predicted eclipses, developed algebra)
- Etemenanki: Great ziggurat of Babylon ("House of the Foundation of Heaven and Earth"), dedicated to Marduk; associated with the Tower of Babel legend; described by Herodotus as a massive stepped tower @t[~600 BCE] [^4]
- Esagila: Main temple complex of Marduk in Babylon, center of Babylonian religious life [^4]
- Hanging Gardens of Babylon (one of the Seven Wonders, existence debated) [^2]
- Ishtar Gate and Processional Way
- Babylonian Captivity (597–539 BCE): Nebuchadnezzar II deported the population of Judah to Babylon following the destruction of the First Temple (586 BCE); ended when Cyrus the Great permitted the exiles to return @t[597 BCE..539 BCE] [^3]
## Decline
The Neo-Babylonian Empire fell to Cyrus the Great of Persia in 539 BCE. @t[=539 BCE]
The Old Babylonian period ended when the Hittites sacked Babylon (~1595 BCE), after which the Kassite dynasty ruled for nearly 400 years. @t[~1595 BCE] [^3] The Neo-Babylonian Empire fell to Cyrus the Great of Persia in 539 BCE. @t[=539 BCE]
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[^1]: Roth, M.T. *Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia Minor* (1997)
[^2]: Dalley, S. *The Mystery of the Hanging Garden of Babylon* (2013)
[^3]: Van De Mieroop, M. *A History of the Ancient Near East* (3rd ed., Wiley-Blackwell, 2015)
[^4]: Herodotus, *Histories* 1.178–183
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## Review Queue
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- [x]`@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Region: Central-southern Mesopotamia (modern Iraq)" - when was this true?
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