260 lines
22 KiB
Markdown
260 lines
22 KiB
Markdown
<!-- factbase:f6391a -->
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# Battle of Kadesh
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## Overview
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The Battle of Kadesh (~1274 BCE, traditionally May) was fought between the Egyptian Empire under Ramesses II and the Hittite Empire under Muwatalli II near the city of Kadesh on the Orontes River (modern Syria). It is the earliest battle for which detailed tactical accounts survive from both sides, and the earliest pitched battle for which details of formations and troop dispositions are known. @t[~1274 BCE]
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## Key Facts
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- Date: ~1274 BCE (May, by Egyptian chronology) @t[~1274 BCE]
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- Location: Kadesh, on the Orontes River (modern Tell Nebi Mend, Syria)
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- Belligerents: Egypt vs. Hittite Empire
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- Commanders: Ramesses II (Egypt, r. 1279–1213 BCE), Muwatalli II (Hittites, r. 1295–1272 BCE)
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- Forces: Egyptian ~20,000 men and ~2,000 chariots; Hittite forces claimed by Egyptian sources at 37,000 men and 3,500 chariots (figures likely exaggerated) [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
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- Result: Tactically indecisive; both sides claimed victory [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
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## The Battle
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- Largest chariot battle in history (~5,000–6,000 chariots total) <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
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- The Egyptian army advanced in four divisions named after gods: Amun, Ra, Ptah, and Seth [^1] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
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- Ramesses was ambushed after receiving false intelligence from Hittite spies; he was leading the Amun division when the Ra division was routed <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
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- Egyptian camp nearly overrun before reinforcements arrived <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
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- Ramesses personally led a counterattack <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
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## Primary Sources
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Two major Egyptian literary accounts survive:
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- **Bulletin of Kadesh** — a prose account of the battle inscribed on temple walls <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
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- **Poem of Pentaur** — a poetic glorification of Ramesses' personal heroism, known from eight separate inscriptions [^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
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Both texts present an Egyptian victory narrative; Hittite records from Hattusa offer a contrasting perspective.
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## Aftermath
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- Led to the Treaty of Kadesh (~1259 BCE), the earliest known international peace treaty @t[~1259 BCE] [^3]
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- Egypt retained influence in Canaan; Hittites kept Syria <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
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- Ramesses commissioned extensive propaganda reliefs at Abu Simbel, Karnak, Luxor, Abydos, and the Ramesseum [^2] <!-- reviewed:2026-02-23 -->
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---
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[^1]: Spalinger, A. *War in Ancient Egypt* (Blackwell, 2005)
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[^2]: Kitchen, K.A. *Pharaoh Triumphant* (1982)
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[^3]: Beckman, G. *Hittite Diplomatic Texts* (Scholars Press, 1999)
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---
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- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Date: ~1274 BCE" - when was this true?
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> BCE event. Date from Egyptian records at Karnak and Abu Simbel; modern analysis in Spalinger, *War in Ancient Egypt* (2005) [^1] and Kitchen, *Pharaoh Triumphant* (1982) [^2].
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- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Location: Kadesh, on the Orontes River (modern Tell Nebi Mend, Syria)" - when was this true?
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> BCE-era fact. Attested by Egyptian Bulletin of Kadesh and Hittite records from Hattusa; confirmed in Spalinger (2005) [^1] and Kitchen (1982) [^2].
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- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Belligerents: Egypt vs. Hittite Empire" - when was this true?
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> BCE-era fact. Attested by both Egyptian and Hittite records; confirmed in Spalinger (2005) [^1].
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- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 13: "Commanders: Ramesses II (Egypt), Muwatalli II (Hittites)" - when was this true?
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> BCE-era fact. Attested by Egyptian records and Hittite records from Hattusa; confirmed in Kitchen (1982) [^2].
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- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 14: "Result: Tactically indecisive; both sides claimed victory [^1]" - when was this true?
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> BCE-era fact. Both sides' victory claims attested in their own records. Modern assessment of indecisive outcome in Spalinger (2005) [^1].
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- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 17: "Largest chariot battle in history (~5,000–6,000 chariots total)" - when was this true?
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> BCE-era fact. Chariot estimates from Egyptian and Hittite records; modern analysis in Spalinger (2005) [^1].
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- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Ramesses was ambushed after receiving false intelligence from Hittite spies" - when was this true?
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> BCE event (~1274 BCE). Attested by the Egyptian Bulletin of Kadesh; confirmed in Kitchen (1982) [^2].
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- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Egyptian camp nearly overrun before reinforcements arrived" - when was this true?
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> BCE event (~1274 BCE). Attested by the Egyptian Bulletin of Kadesh; confirmed in Kitchen (1982) [^2].
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- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 20: "Ramesses personally led a counterattack" - when was this true?
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> BCE event (~1274 BCE). Attested by the Egyptian Poem of Kadesh; confirmed in Kitchen (1982) [^2].
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- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 23: "Led to the Treaty of Kadesh (~1259 BCE), the earliest known international pea..." - when was this true?
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> BCE-era fact. Treaty text preserved in both Egyptian (Karnak) and Hittite (Hattusa) copies; modern analysis in Beckman, *Hittite Diplomatic Texts* (1999) and Kitchen (1982) [^2].
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- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 24: "Egypt retained influence in Canaan; Hittites kept Syria" - when was this true?
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> BCE-era fact (post-treaty arrangement, ~1259 BCE onward). Attested by treaty terms; confirmed in Spalinger (2005) [^1] and Kitchen (1982) [^2].
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- [x] `@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Ramesses commissioned extensive propaganda reliefs at Abu Simbel, Karnak, and..." - when was this true?
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> BCE-era fact (during Ramesses II's reign, ~1274-1213 BCE). The reliefs themselves are the primary source; scholarly analysis in Kitchen (1982) [^2].
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- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Date: ~1274 BCE" - what is the source?
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> Source: Spalinger (2005) [^1]; Kitchen (1982) [^2]. Egyptian records at Karnak, Abu Simbel, and the Ramesseum.
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- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Location: Kadesh, on the Orontes River (modern Tell Nebi Mend, Syria)" - what is the source?
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> Source: Spalinger (2005) [^1]; Kitchen (1982) [^2].
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- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Belligerents: Egypt vs. Hittite Empire" - what is the source?
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> Source: Egyptian and Hittite records; Spalinger (2005) [^1].
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- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 13: "Commanders: Ramesses II (Egypt), Muwatalli II (Hittites)" - what is the source?
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> Source: Egyptian records; Kitchen (1982) [^2]; Hittite records from Hattusa.
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- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 17: "Largest chariot battle in history (~5,000–6,000 chariots total)" - what is the source?
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> Source: Spalinger (2005) [^1]. Chariot estimates based on Egyptian and Hittite records.
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- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Ramesses was ambushed after receiving false intelligence from Hittite spies" - what is the source?
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> Source: Egyptian Bulletin and Poem of Kadesh; Kitchen (1982) [^2].
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- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 19: "Egyptian camp nearly overrun before reinforcements arrived" - what is the source?
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> Source: Egyptian Bulletin of Kadesh; Kitchen (1982) [^2].
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- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 20: "Ramesses personally led a counterattack" - what is the source?
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> Source: Egyptian Poem of Kadesh; Kitchen (1982) [^2].
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- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 23: "Led to the Treaty of Kadesh (~1259 BCE), the earliest known international pea..." - what is the source?
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> Source: Beckman, Hittite Diplomatic Texts (1999); Kitchen (1982) [^2].
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- [x] `@q[missing]` Line 24: "Egypt retained influence in Canaan; Hittites kept Syria" - what is the source?
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> Source: Spalinger (2005) [^1]; Kitchen (1982) [^2].
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- [x] `@q[ambiguous]` Line 13: "Commanders: Ramesses II (Egypt), Muwatalli II (Hittites)" - what does "II" mean in this context?
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> II is the regnal number — Ramesses II was the second pharaoh named Ramesses, and Muwatalli II was the second Hittite king of that name. Standard historical convention.
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- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 14: "Result: Tactically indecisive; both sides claimed victory [^1]" - Spalinger source from 2005 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
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> Scholarship remains current. Spalinger's work on the Battle of Kadesh is still authoritative.
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- [x] `@q[stale]` Line 25: "Ramesses commissioned extensive propaganda reliefs at Abu Simbel, Karnak, and..." - Kitchen source from 1982 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
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> Scholarship remains current. Kitchen's work on Ramesses II is still foundational.---
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## Review Queue
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<!-- factbase:review -->
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 9: "Location: Kadesh, on the Orontes River (modern Tell Nebi Mend, Syria)" - when was this true?
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>
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Belligerents: Egypt vs. Hittite Empire" - when was this true?
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>
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Commanders: Ramesses II (Egypt, r. 1279–1213 BCE), Muwatalli II (Hittites, ..." - when was this true?
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>
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 41: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Date: ~1274 BCE" - when was this true?" - when was this true?
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> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body. The checker should not generate questions about the review queue section.
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 43: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Location: Kadesh, on the Orontes River (modern T..." - when was this true?
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> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 45: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Belligerents: Egypt vs. Hittite Empire" - when w..." - when was this true?
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> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 47: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 13: "Commanders: Ramesses II (Egypt), Muwatalli II (H..." - when was this true?
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> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 49: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 14: "Result: Tactically indecisive; both sides claime..." - when was this true?
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> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 51: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 17: "Largest chariot battle in history (~5,000–6,00..." - when was this true?
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> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 53: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Ramesses was ambushed after receiving false inte..." - when was this true?
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> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 55: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Egyptian camp nearly overrun before reinforcemen..." - when was this true?
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> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 57: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 20: "Ramesses personally led a counterattack" - when ..." - when was this true?
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> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 59: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 23: "Led to the Treaty of Kadesh (~1259 BCE), the ear..." - when was this true?
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> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 61: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 24: "Egypt retained influence in Canaan; Hittites kep..." - when was this true?
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> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 63: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Ramesses commissioned extensive propaganda relie..." - when was this true?
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> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 65: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Date: ~1274 BCE" - what is the source?" - when was this true?
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> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 67: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Location: Kadesh, on the Orontes River (modern Te..." - when was this true?
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> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 69: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Belligerents: Egypt vs. Hittite Empire" - what is..." - when was this true?
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> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 71: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 13: "Commanders: Ramesses II (Egypt), Muwatalli II (Hi..." - when was this true?
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> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 73: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 17: "Largest chariot battle in history (~5,000–6,000..." - when was this true?
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> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 75: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Ramesses was ambushed after receiving false intel..." - when was this true?
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> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 77: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 19: "Egyptian camp nearly overrun before reinforcement..." - when was this true?
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> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 79: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 20: "Ramesses personally led a counterattack" - what i..." - when was this true?
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> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 81: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 23: "Led to the Treaty of Kadesh (~1259 BCE), the earl..." - when was this true?
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> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 83: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 24: "Egypt retained influence in Canaan; Hittites kept..." - when was this true?
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> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 85: "[x] `@q[ambiguous]` Line 13: "Commanders: Ramesses II (Egypt), Muwatalli II (..." - when was this true?
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> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 87: "[x] `@q[stale]` Line 14: "Result: Tactically indecisive; both sides claimed v..." - when was this true?
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> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
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- [ ] `@q[temporal]` Line 89: "[x] `@q[stale]` Line 25: "Ramesses commissioned extensive propaganda reliefs ..." - when was this true?
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> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 8: "Date: ~1274 BCE (May, by Egyptian chronology) @t[~1274 BCE]" - what is the source?
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> Need to verify whether the date claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 9: "Location: Kadesh, on the Orontes River (modern Tell Nebi Mend, Syria)" - what is the source?
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> Need to verify whether the location claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Belligerents: Egypt vs. Hittite Empire" - what is the source?
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> Need to verify whether the belligerents claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Commanders: Ramesses II (Egypt, r. 1279–1213 BCE), Muwatalli II (Hittites, ..." - what is the source?
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> Need to verify whether the commanders claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 16: "Largest chariot battle in history (~5,000–6,000 chariots total)" - what is the source?
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> Need to verify whether the chariot count claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 18: "Ramesses was ambushed after receiving false intelligence from Hittite spies; ..." - what is the source?
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> Need to verify whether the ambush claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 19: "Egyptian camp nearly overrun before reinforcements arrived" - what is the source?
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> Need to verify whether the camp overrun claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 20: "Ramesses personally led a counterattack" - what is the source?
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> Need to verify whether the counterattack claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 31: "Egypt retained influence in Canaan; Hittites kept Syria" - what is the source?
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> Need to verify whether the post-battle territorial claim has an explicit source citation in the document footnotes.
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 41: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 10: "Date: ~1274 BCE" - when was this true?" - what is the source?
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> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 43: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 11: "Location: Kadesh, on the Orontes River (modern T..." - what is the source?
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> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 45: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 12: "Belligerents: Egypt vs. Hittite Empire" - when w..." - what is the source?
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> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 47: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 13: "Commanders: Ramesses II (Egypt), Muwatalli II (H..." - what is the source?
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> This question was generated about a line in the document's own review queue section, not about a historical fact in the document body.
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 51: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 17: "Largest chariot battle in history (~5,000–6,00..." - what is the source?
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>
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 53: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 18: "Ramesses was ambushed after receiving false inte..." - what is the source?
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>
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 55: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 19: "Egyptian camp nearly overrun before reinforcemen..." - what is the source?
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>
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 57: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 20: "Ramesses personally led a counterattack" - when ..." - what is the source?
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>
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 59: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 23: "Led to the Treaty of Kadesh (~1259 BCE), the ear..." - what is the source?
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>
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 61: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 24: "Egypt retained influence in Canaan; Hittites kep..." - what is the source?
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>
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 63: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 25: "Ramesses commissioned extensive propaganda relie..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 65: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 10: "Date: ~1274 BCE" - what is the source?" - what is the source?
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>
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 67: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 11: "Location: Kadesh, on the Orontes River (modern Te..." - what is the source?
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>
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 69: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 12: "Belligerents: Egypt vs. Hittite Empire" - what is..." - what is the source?
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>
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 71: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 13: "Commanders: Ramesses II (Egypt), Muwatalli II (Hi..." - what is the source?
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>
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 73: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 17: "Largest chariot battle in history (~5,000–6,000..." - what is the source?
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>
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 77: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 19: "Egyptian camp nearly overrun before reinforcement..." - what is the source?
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 79: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 20: "Ramesses personally led a counterattack" - what i..." - what is the source?
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>
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 81: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 23: "Led to the Treaty of Kadesh (~1259 BCE), the earl..." - what is the source?
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>
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 83: "[x] `@q[missing]` Line 24: "Egypt retained influence in Canaan; Hittites kept..." - what is the source?
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>
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 85: "[x] `@q[ambiguous]` Line 13: "Commanders: Ramesses II (Egypt), Muwatalli II (..." - what is the source?
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>
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- [ ] `@q[missing]` Line 89: "[x] `@q[stale]` Line 25: "Ramesses commissioned extensive propaganda reliefs ..." - what is the source?
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>
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- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 12: "Forces: Egyptian ~20,000 men and ~2,000 chariots; Hittite forces claimed by E..." - Spalinger source from 2005 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
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>
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- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 13: "Result: Tactically indecisive; both sides claimed victory [^1]" - Spalinger source from 2005 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
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>
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- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 17: "The Egyptian army advanced in four divisions named after gods: Amun, Ra, Ptah..." - Spalinger source from 2005 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
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>
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- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 25: "**Poem of Pentaur** — a poetic glorification of Ramesses' personal heroism,..." - Kitchen source from 1982 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
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- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 30: "Led to the Treaty of Kadesh (~1259 BCE), the earliest known international pea..." - Beckman source from 1999 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
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- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 32: "Ramesses commissioned extensive propaganda reliefs at Abu Simbel, Karnak, Lux..." - Kitchen source from 1982 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
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- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 49: "[x] `@q[temporal]` Line 14: "Result: Tactically indecisive; both sides claime..." - Spalinger source from 2005 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
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- [ ] `@q[stale]` Line 87: "[x] `@q[stale]` Line 14: "Result: Tactically indecisive; both sides claimed v..." - Spalinger source from 2005 may be outdated, is this still accurate?
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